1) "The nature of the 'testudo' formation is as follows: our tightly packed soldiers raise their shields over the heads of themselves and their comrades, so that nothing but shields can be seen throughout the entire formation...
2) ..all men are protected from missiles by the density of the arrangement. Indeed, the 'testudo' is so incredibly strong that men can walk upon it, and whenever they come to a narrow ravine, even horses and vehicles can be driven over it!..
3) ..Hence the name 'testudo", which we derive from the Greek for 'tortoise' - a reference to both its strength and the shelter it affords. Our soldiers use it in two ways: either in advancing to make assault on a fort, often even enabling some men to scale the very walls..
4) ..or other times, when the men are surrounded by archers they all crouch together - even the horses are taught to kneel or lie down in such a situation - and therefore give the enemy the impression they are beaten. Then when the enemy inevitably approaches..
5) ..our soldiers suddenly spring up and throw them into confusion. With a single command they form a full battle-line. In an instant they confront the foe, face to face, each soldier falling on the nearest man..
6) ..Each legionary cuts down great numbers, since they contend in full armour against men unprotected. Men prepared, against men off their guard. Roman against barbarian."
Cassius Dio (49.30)
As a final addendum: 21st century versions of the ‘testudo’ from riot police around the world, illustrating the timeless effectiveness of the formation.
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