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The Expulsion: When Communities Thousands of Years Old Vanished Within a Decade (1/8)
Opening
Between 1948 and 1975, roughly 947,000 Jews left the Arab and Islamic world — Morocco alone, the country with the largest community, lost a quarter of a million Jews. This was not a marginal phenomenon. It was the uprooting of entire communities, some older than Islam itself, within less than a single generation.
And yet, almost no one knows the story.
52,000 testimonies, fewer than a hundred of them
Professor Henry Green, founder of the international "Sephardi Voices" archive, recounts that when he arrived in Jerusalem in 1971 and first heard about the "Black Panthers," he — an Ashkenazi Jew from Canada — knew nothing about Sephardic Jews. That gap stayed with him throughout his career. In the great Holocaust testimony archive at the University of Southern California, out of 52,000 recorded testimonies, fewer than a hundred come from Jews of Arab lands. On the Farhud itself — the pogrom that struck Baghdad's Jews in 1941 — there is not a single testimony in the archive.
Why the silence?
Green offers two reasons. The first: Sephardic Jews became a "minority within a minority" inside the Ashkenazi communities of the new diaspora, and it took a full generation before their voice began to be heard. The second, sharper reason: officially defining Jews from Arab lands as refugees creates an uncomfortable comparison — because it then becomes necessary to also address the question of the 1948 Palestinian refugees. Green himself is careful on this point — he isn't suggesting the two people's suffering be weighed against each other to cancel one out. "We're not looking for equivalence," he says, "we're looking for recognition." Only in 2015 — nearly seventy years after the events themselves — did Israel declare an official "Refugee Day," November 30th.
That's the introduction. What actually happened, country by country, is made up of three threads that are hard to separate: specific violence that pushed people to leave, a legal-governmental mechanism that made staying impossible, and a question, still disputed today, about Israeli involvement in accelerating the process.
Opening
Between 1948 and 1975, roughly 947,000 Jews left the Arab and Islamic world — Morocco alone, the country with the largest community, lost a quarter of a million Jews. This was not a marginal phenomenon. It was the uprooting of entire communities, some older than Islam itself, within less than a single generation.
And yet, almost no one knows the story.
52,000 testimonies, fewer than a hundred of them
Professor Henry Green, founder of the international "Sephardi Voices" archive, recounts that when he arrived in Jerusalem in 1971 and first heard about the "Black Panthers," he — an Ashkenazi Jew from Canada — knew nothing about Sephardic Jews. That gap stayed with him throughout his career. In the great Holocaust testimony archive at the University of Southern California, out of 52,000 recorded testimonies, fewer than a hundred come from Jews of Arab lands. On the Farhud itself — the pogrom that struck Baghdad's Jews in 1941 — there is not a single testimony in the archive.
Why the silence?
Green offers two reasons. The first: Sephardic Jews became a "minority within a minority" inside the Ashkenazi communities of the new diaspora, and it took a full generation before their voice began to be heard. The second, sharper reason: officially defining Jews from Arab lands as refugees creates an uncomfortable comparison — because it then becomes necessary to also address the question of the 1948 Palestinian refugees. Green himself is careful on this point — he isn't suggesting the two people's suffering be weighed against each other to cancel one out. "We're not looking for equivalence," he says, "we're looking for recognition." Only in 2015 — nearly seventy years after the events themselves — did Israel declare an official "Refugee Day," November 30th.
That's the introduction. What actually happened, country by country, is made up of three threads that are hard to separate: specific violence that pushed people to leave, a legal-governmental mechanism that made staying impossible, and a question, still disputed today, about Israeli involvement in accelerating the process.
Iraq — The Three Threads (2/8)
Thread 1: The violence — the Farhud, 1941
On June 1–2, 1941, in a power vacuum created by the fall of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani's pro-Nazi government, mass violence erupted in the streets of Baghdad. 170–180 Jews were killed, homes and shops were looted. A larger number of Muslims were also killed — some of them rioters, some of them defending their Jewish neighbors. Baghdad's Shiite leader, Abu al-Hasan al-Musawi, refused to issue a fatwa against the Jews and ordered Shiites not to take part in the massacre. British forces stationed near the city refused to intervene — British documents on the events were sealed until 1992 and 2017, respectively.
Thread 2: The legal mechanism — 1950–1951
Nine years after the Farhud, the Iraqi government itself opened the door to emigration — but on terms that made return impossible. On March 2, 1950, Prime Minister Salih Jabr passed a law allowing Jews to emigrate, on condition they renounce their Iraqi citizenship. In March 1951, after most Jews had already renounced their citizenship, Nuri al-Said's government froze all their remaining property in Iraq.
Thread 3: The bombing affair — a dispute still unresolved
Between April 1950 and March 1951, several bombs exploded in places where Jews gathered — a café, a synagogue, an American cultural center, Jewish commercial firms. Four were killed in the attack on the Masuda Shemtov Synagogue. Two suspects — Yosef Basri and Shalom Salih — were executed.
Who was behind the bombings remains disputed to this day. Historian Avi Shlaim (Oxford) claimed in 2023, relying mainly on a single testimony, that the Zionist underground itself carried out some of the attacks to accelerate the exodus. His claim has met real factual criticism (date errors, reliance on a problematic source). Historian Esther Meir-Glitzenstein, in the most comprehensive academic research on the subject, states cautiously that the guilt of those executed "was not proven beyond doubt" — declining to reach a definitive conclusion either way.
What is clear, without dispute: the combined result of the three threads was an almost total departure. A community of roughly 135,000 in 1948 — about a third of Baghdad's population — shrank within two years to a few thousand.
Thread 1: The violence — the Farhud, 1941
On June 1–2, 1941, in a power vacuum created by the fall of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani's pro-Nazi government, mass violence erupted in the streets of Baghdad. 170–180 Jews were killed, homes and shops were looted. A larger number of Muslims were also killed — some of them rioters, some of them defending their Jewish neighbors. Baghdad's Shiite leader, Abu al-Hasan al-Musawi, refused to issue a fatwa against the Jews and ordered Shiites not to take part in the massacre. British forces stationed near the city refused to intervene — British documents on the events were sealed until 1992 and 2017, respectively.
Thread 2: The legal mechanism — 1950–1951
Nine years after the Farhud, the Iraqi government itself opened the door to emigration — but on terms that made return impossible. On March 2, 1950, Prime Minister Salih Jabr passed a law allowing Jews to emigrate, on condition they renounce their Iraqi citizenship. In March 1951, after most Jews had already renounced their citizenship, Nuri al-Said's government froze all their remaining property in Iraq.
Thread 3: The bombing affair — a dispute still unresolved
Between April 1950 and March 1951, several bombs exploded in places where Jews gathered — a café, a synagogue, an American cultural center, Jewish commercial firms. Four were killed in the attack on the Masuda Shemtov Synagogue. Two suspects — Yosef Basri and Shalom Salih — were executed.
Who was behind the bombings remains disputed to this day. Historian Avi Shlaim (Oxford) claimed in 2023, relying mainly on a single testimony, that the Zionist underground itself carried out some of the attacks to accelerate the exodus. His claim has met real factual criticism (date errors, reliance on a problematic source). Historian Esther Meir-Glitzenstein, in the most comprehensive academic research on the subject, states cautiously that the guilt of those executed "was not proven beyond doubt" — declining to reach a definitive conclusion either way.
What is clear, without dispute: the combined result of the three threads was an almost total departure. A community of roughly 135,000 in 1948 — about a third of Baghdad's population — shrank within two years to a few thousand.
Yemen and Aden — The Three Threads (3/8)
Thread 1: The violence — the Aden riots, December 1947
Just two days after the UN approved the partition plan on November 29, 1947, violent riots broke out in Aden — then a British protectorate — against its ancient Jewish community. Between December 2 and 4, 82 Jews were murdered, and 76 more were wounded (some sources count as many as 87 dead). Four synagogues and 220 Jewish homes were burned or looted, two Jewish schools were emptied and set on fire. The British authorities' response was, according to contemporary accounts, slow and hesitant — some of the army units sent to quell the unrest were staffed by Arab soldiers, some of whom joined the looting themselves. Jewish refugees from Yemen itself, who had reached Aden hoping to immigrate to Israel, were turned away by the British because they weren't Aden citizens — they were left unprotected in the streets, until the Joint Distribution Committee funded a camp for them 30 kilometers outside the city.
Thread 2: The mechanism — Yemen's refusal, then cooperation
Before 1948, Yemen's authorities (Imam Yahya) opposed Jewish immigration to Israel. After the state was established and Egypt and Israel signed an armistice, the Imam — following diplomatic pressure, including meetings between representatives of the World Jewish Congress and the Imam's representatives — agreed to an emigration plan. Between December 1948 and September 1950, roughly 49,000 Jews were flown out of Yemen and Aden on about 380 flights, in an operation known as "On Eagles' Wings" or "Operation Magic Carpet."
Thread 3: What happened along the way and in the camps — a dispute that continues today
Not every part of the story ended with the flight itself. Some immigrants waited at the "Geula" camp near Aden for more than three years, under harsh conditions that led to a high rate of infant mortality. In the years that followed, a bitterly disputed affair arose — the "Yemenite Children Affair" — surrounding the disappearance of hundreds of infants and toddlers among the immigrants, whose parents claimed were given up for adoption without their knowledge. Three separate state commissions of inquiry, the last in 2001, found no proof of an organized, systematic abduction operation — but criticism of how the commissions worked, and of records that weren't preserved, continues to this day, and belongs not to the debate over "the expulsion" itself but to a separate and more delicate chapter.
Thread 1: The violence — the Aden riots, December 1947
Just two days after the UN approved the partition plan on November 29, 1947, violent riots broke out in Aden — then a British protectorate — against its ancient Jewish community. Between December 2 and 4, 82 Jews were murdered, and 76 more were wounded (some sources count as many as 87 dead). Four synagogues and 220 Jewish homes were burned or looted, two Jewish schools were emptied and set on fire. The British authorities' response was, according to contemporary accounts, slow and hesitant — some of the army units sent to quell the unrest were staffed by Arab soldiers, some of whom joined the looting themselves. Jewish refugees from Yemen itself, who had reached Aden hoping to immigrate to Israel, were turned away by the British because they weren't Aden citizens — they were left unprotected in the streets, until the Joint Distribution Committee funded a camp for them 30 kilometers outside the city.
Thread 2: The mechanism — Yemen's refusal, then cooperation
Before 1948, Yemen's authorities (Imam Yahya) opposed Jewish immigration to Israel. After the state was established and Egypt and Israel signed an armistice, the Imam — following diplomatic pressure, including meetings between representatives of the World Jewish Congress and the Imam's representatives — agreed to an emigration plan. Between December 1948 and September 1950, roughly 49,000 Jews were flown out of Yemen and Aden on about 380 flights, in an operation known as "On Eagles' Wings" or "Operation Magic Carpet."
Thread 3: What happened along the way and in the camps — a dispute that continues today
Not every part of the story ended with the flight itself. Some immigrants waited at the "Geula" camp near Aden for more than three years, under harsh conditions that led to a high rate of infant mortality. In the years that followed, a bitterly disputed affair arose — the "Yemenite Children Affair" — surrounding the disappearance of hundreds of infants and toddlers among the immigrants, whose parents claimed were given up for adoption without their knowledge. Three separate state commissions of inquiry, the last in 2001, found no proof of an organized, systematic abduction operation — but criticism of how the commissions worked, and of records that weren't preserved, continues to this day, and belongs not to the debate over "the expulsion" itself but to a separate and more delicate chapter.
Roger Froikin @rlefraim wrote, "I have been asked who my favorite president of the USA was.
Hard to choose. Some may surprise you. I think my favorite was Teddy Roosevelt, who became president originally as the vice president when President McKinley died...
1)
Hard to choose. Some may surprise you. I think my favorite was Teddy Roosevelt, who became president originally as the vice president when President McKinley died...
1)
@rlefraim shortly after taking office, served 3 1/2 years, and then ran on his own and won for 4 more years, choosing after 8 years to stop, citing George Washington as his model (before the Constitution was changed to limit terms).
2)
2)
@rlefraim Roosevelt was pro-Jewish and pro-Zionist and had very close relationships with the Jewish community. First president to appoint a Jew to his cabinet. Kept two Hanukkah menorahs at his home at Sagamore Hill.
3)
3)
I'm finally digging into the cross tabs underlying the @SearchlightInst memo telling Dems not to talk about #ClimateChange.
LOTS of surprises there!
The first one: swing voters like environmental groups & the clean-energy industry.
More don't like oil and gas than do.
🧵
LOTS of surprises there!
The first one: swing voters like environmental groups & the clean-energy industry.
More don't like oil and gas than do.
🧵
Most swing voters think the top issue for Dems is not climate change, but LGBTQ rights, followed by healthcare and prices.
For these voters climate change seems as important to the party as abortion and jobs.
So not a referendum issue, by any means.
2/n
For these voters climate change seems as important to the party as abortion and jobs.
So not a referendum issue, by any means.
2/n
Most swing voters think that the Democratic party is from somewhat to completely "in step" with them on climate change.
3/n
3/n
Petr Pavel: Ukraine may have about two months to force talks before Russia’s September elections.
After Sept. 20, Putin could declare a general mobilisation and shrink the window for peace, — The Telegraph. 1/
After Sept. 20, Putin could declare a general mobilisation and shrink the window for peace, — The Telegraph. 1/
Pavel: Putin is unlikely to mobilise before parliamentary elections because it would be deeply unpopular. But once the vote is over, the political cost changes. 2/
Pavel: Allies must use the current pressure on Russia now.
Give Ukraine what it needs, keep hitting Russia’s weak points, and make Moscow believe negotiation is the only way to get anything. 3/
Give Ukraine what it needs, keep hitting Russia’s weak points, and make Moscow believe negotiation is the only way to get anything. 3/
Plan A is the single most thorough and thoughtful plan that I'm aware of for what the world should do as we approach Superintelligence.
If we want to get through the singularity alive, this is my current best guess of the playbook we should be aiming to implement.
If we want to get through the singularity alive, this is my current best guess of the playbook we should be aiming to implement.
It's my current best guess mainly because there are so few serious contenders that actually engage with the details of the situation.
In developing Plan A, substantial effort has gone into working out the game-tree, and figuring out which policy actions could be made viable for real given likely verification technologies and the likely behavior of the relevant actors.
1/ 🧵
What if the most controversial country on earth is actually the greatest modern example of successful decolonization?
In a world built on layers of conquest and forgotten histories, Israel stands as a shining symbol of justice reclaimed. After two thousand years of exile, persecution, and loss, the Jewish people returned to their ancient homeland, transforming a barren land into a thriving democracy.
This unprecedented act of decolonization, the first true success in modern times, not only revives a nation’s spirit but also exposes the fragile foundations of many empires.
It’s no wonder this miracle provokes such fierce controversy. It dares to show that the oppressed can rise, reclaim what’s theirs, and build a future of freedom and prosperity.
What if the most controversial country on earth is actually the greatest modern example of successful decolonization?
In a world built on layers of conquest and forgotten histories, Israel stands as a shining symbol of justice reclaimed. After two thousand years of exile, persecution, and loss, the Jewish people returned to their ancient homeland, transforming a barren land into a thriving democracy.
This unprecedented act of decolonization, the first true success in modern times, not only revives a nation’s spirit but also exposes the fragile foundations of many empires.
It’s no wonder this miracle provokes such fierce controversy. It dares to show that the oppressed can rise, reclaim what’s theirs, and build a future of freedom and prosperity.
2/
The story of Israel begins with a people deeply rooted in the land of Judea, where their ancestors built kingdoms, temples, and a rich culture thousands of years ago.
Invaded time and again by empires like the Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, Ottomans, and British, the Jews were scattered across the globe. Their holy sites were desecrated, their communities destroyed, and their identity suppressed.
Yet through it all, a dream persisted: the return to Zion. This wasn’t just nostalgia. It was a rightful claim to indigeneity, backed by unbroken historical ties, archaeology, and spiritual connection.
Zionism emerged as a movement of hope and self-determination, rebuilding the homeland through hard work, legal land purchases, and international recognition, not conquest.
The story of Israel begins with a people deeply rooted in the land of Judea, where their ancestors built kingdoms, temples, and a rich culture thousands of years ago.
Invaded time and again by empires like the Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, Ottomans, and British, the Jews were scattered across the globe. Their holy sites were desecrated, their communities destroyed, and their identity suppressed.
Yet through it all, a dream persisted: the return to Zion. This wasn’t just nostalgia. It was a rightful claim to indigeneity, backed by unbroken historical ties, archaeology, and spiritual connection.
Zionism emerged as a movement of hope and self-determination, rebuilding the homeland through hard work, legal land purchases, and international recognition, not conquest.
3/
What makes Israel the first true decolonization is its complete reversal of colonial fate. Unlike partial autonomies granted elsewhere, Israel achieved full sovereignty.
In 1948, after the UN voted to partition the British Mandate of Palestine, the Jewish people declared independence. They faced immediate invasion from neighboring Arab states but defended their right to exist through sheer determination and ingenuity.
Today Israel controls its borders, laws, economy, and defense. It’s self-sufficient in food, water, and technology, turning deserts into fertile fields with innovations like drip irrigation and desalination.
This isn’t survival. It’s a roaring success. Booming economy, world-class universities, and a vibrant culture blending ancient traditions with modern life.
What makes Israel the first true decolonization is its complete reversal of colonial fate. Unlike partial autonomies granted elsewhere, Israel achieved full sovereignty.
In 1948, after the UN voted to partition the British Mandate of Palestine, the Jewish people declared independence. They faced immediate invasion from neighboring Arab states but defended their right to exist through sheer determination and ingenuity.
Today Israel controls its borders, laws, economy, and defense. It’s self-sufficient in food, water, and technology, turning deserts into fertile fields with innovations like drip irrigation and desalination.
This isn’t survival. It’s a roaring success. Booming economy, world-class universities, and a vibrant culture blending ancient traditions with modern life.
1/ Russian mobile air defence teams are stuck in queues outside gas stations and are being denied preferential access to scarce fuel, a Russian source says in a plea to a warblogger for help. The problem has arisen because the teams don't drive military-registered vehicles. ⬇️
2/ A relative of a member of a Russian mobile fire group (MOG) writes to ask the governor of the Belgorod region to intervene:
"Greetings. I'm writing to you on behalf of my father, who is currently shooting down drones with the Belgorod BARS [reserve forces] unit."
"Greetings. I'm writing to you on behalf of my father, who is currently shooting down drones with the Belgorod BARS [reserve forces] unit."
3/ "He's asking you to raise the issue of fuel supplies for mobile task forces. Considering that our new acting governor [Alexander Shuvaev] is a military man, I'm sure (or at least want to believe) that he or his aides are reading your posts and will be able to reach them…
Roger Froikin @rlefraim wrote, "Egyptian President al-Sisi announced that Egypt would not accept normalization of relations with Israel until there is a Palestinian state.
1)
1)
@rlefraim The Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on March 26, 1979. This historic agreement, which officially ended 30 years of war between the two nations, guaranteed normalization of relations, exchange of diplomats, and trade.
2)
2)
@rlefraim Included in the agreement was Egypt’s promise not to militarize the Sinai after it was under Egyptian control, and Israel agreed to withdraw from the Sinai and to dismantle Jewish towns and farms.
3)
3)
I'm excited to announce that I've restarted the @EndClimtSilence newsletter with a post on the main climate-communications opportunity I see in this difficult political moment: associating Trump's deep unpopularity with his support for coal, oil, and gas development.
🧵
🧵
When we have focused on fossil fuels—in the Beyond Coal campaign, via divestment, in pipeline fights, or under #KeepItInTheGround—coal, oil, & gas have been called polluting, toxic, the greatest source of emissions, and profoundly unjust.
And they are all of those things!
2/n
And they are all of those things!
2/n
But at the same time, fossil fuels have tended to retain their *cultural* associations with many things Americans like: industry, manufacturing, prosperity, modernity.
3/n
3/n
@RapidResponse47 @StephenM
If the @MinnesotaDFL pardon means he’s no longer deportable, the Administration should just take the L and make @TheDemocrats own it.
Respect both federalism and the Rule of Law by reinstating his green card and wishing him well.
1/
If the @MinnesotaDFL pardon means he’s no longer deportable, the Administration should just take the L and make @TheDemocrats own it.
Respect both federalism and the Rule of Law by reinstating his green card and wishing him well.
1/
@SecMullinDHS should personally travel to Minnesota to present him with his new green card at a high-profile, public ceremony at the Whipple Building, site of anti-@ICEgov @ICEgovERO protests and demonstrations.
@GovTimWalz @AGEllison and @MNCourts Chief Judge must attend.
2/
@GovTimWalz @AGEllison and @MNCourts Chief Judge must attend.
2/
@SecMullinDHS @ICEgov @ICEgovERO @GovTimWalz @AGEllison @MNCourts Invite all MN @MinneapolisDFL Democrat elected officials to a bipartisan celebration of federalism and the Rule of Law.
Show respect to the Hmong community and Hmong culture by inviting all Hmong elected officials from MN and WI @FrancescaHongWI.
3/
startribune.com/mn-ice-deporta…
Show respect to the Hmong community and Hmong culture by inviting all Hmong elected officials from MN and WI @FrancescaHongWI.
3/
startribune.com/mn-ice-deporta…
🛠️ 9 free dev tools I actually use
Bookmark this one. You'll need it.
Follow for daily dev finds 🔔
Bookmark this one. You'll need it.
Follow for daily dev finds 🔔
1. Aider: AI pair programming in your terminal. Chat with an LLM, ship features.
github.com/Aider-AI/aider
2. Sourcegraph: Code search across every repo, every host.
sourcegraph.com
github.com/Aider-AI/aider
2. Sourcegraph: Code search across every repo, every host.
sourcegraph.com
3. GStack: Garry Tan's exact Claude Code setup. 23 opinionated tools.
github.com/garrytan/gstack
4. Public APIs: Massive free API directory for any project.
github.com/public-apis/pu…
github.com/garrytan/gstack
4. Public APIs: Massive free API directory for any project.
github.com/public-apis/pu…
1/ Russia's fuel crisis has developed rapidly and with increasing nationwide severity. A Russian commentary notes that the Russian government only has limited options for dealing with fuel shortages, but these are being overtaken by a fast-growing black market in fuel. ⬇️
2/ 'Federation Towers' highlights how quickly Russia has been plunged into a full-scale fuel crisis:
"The Russian fuel market held up smoothly for all four years of the Special Military Operation."
"The Russian fuel market held up smoothly for all four years of the Special Military Operation."
3/ "In one week in July, it suffered a blow on two fronts: gasoline prices rose by 2.1%, diesel by 3.4%, and gas stations in dozens of regions are experiencing physical shortages of fuel.
