Thread by @NickWhithorn

As Italy will be choosing a new President of the Republic next month (see thread linked below on how the election works & possible candidates), here is a thread looking at the 12 Presidents the country has had since becoming a Republic in 1946 >> 1

https://twitter.com/NickWhithorn/status/1455298119726403588?s=20

On 2 &3 June 1946, Italians voted in a referendum on the form of government, choosing a Republic over Monarchy by 54.3% to 45.7%. On the same days, they elected a Constituent Assembly tasked with writing a new Constitution, which met for the first time on 25 June 1946 >> 2

On 28 June 1946, the Assembly elected Enrico De Nicola (photo) as the Provisional Head of State. At this stage he did not yet have the title of President of the Republic, as there was still no Constitution creating the post >> 3

De Nicola was chosen as he was a southerner (born in Naples) from the Liberal Party, which supported the monarchist cause in the referendum. Indeed, the south in general, and Naples in particular, voted heavily for the monarchy, so his appointment was a peace offering >> 4

De Nicola was President of the Chamber of Deputies from 1920 to 1924 & presided over the Chamber when Mussolini made his first speech as PM on 16 November 1922. With the tightening of Fascist power, De Nicola dropped out of politics until Italy's surrender in September 1943 >> 5

On 25 June 1947, De Nicola resigned as Head of State citing health reasons but, in reality, he was in disagreement with some of the choices made by PM Alcide De Gasperi (photo). The Assembly did not have the power to refuse but simply re-elected him the next day >> 6

De Nicola signed the new Constitution on 27 December 1947 (photo) & officially became the first President of the Republic on 1 January 1948, when the Constitution came into force. His time in office was to be very brief >> 7

On 18-19 April 1948, a new Parliament was elected and De Gasperi was confirmed as PM. A new President now had to be chosen by the Parliament and De Nicola was expected to be reconfirmed. De Gasperi, however, had other ideas and wanted a more pro-European candidate >> 8

De Gasperi preferred Foreign Minister Carlo Sforza (photo, left, with Churchill in Strasbourg, 1950), a strong supporter of European integration. De Nicola won the first ballot & Sforza the second, but neither had the two-thirds majority required to win in the first 3 rounds >> 9

As often happens in this sort of situation, a compromise candidate emerged in the third ballot: Luigi Einaudi (photo), another Liberal Party politician, who won the third ballot & was confirmed in the fourth ballot on 11 May 1948, when a simple majority was sufficient >> 10

De Nicola went on to serve as President of the Senate & President of the Constitutional Court, thus becoming the only person to occupy 4 of Italy's 5 Offices of State. The only one he didn't get was PM (or President of the Council of Ministers, to give it its proper title) >> 11

Before his election, Einaudi was serving as Governor of the Bank of Italy, as well as Deputy PM & Finance Minister. In the pre-war years, he taught in the Law Faculty at the University of Turin, even though that meant swearing an oath of loyalty to the régime >> 12

He preferred to do this rather than let his place be taken by a fascist Professor. He also remained a member of the Senate throughout the fascist period, participating little as Parliament was powerless, but voting against provisions as the racial laws of 1938 >> 13

As a Liberal, Einaudi had also voted for the Monarchy in the referendum but immediately made clear his loyalty to the Republic. He was the first President to exercise the right to veto laws passed by Parliament, doing so four times >> 14

Einaudi was also the first President to occupy the Quirinale Palace, previously used by the Italian Royal Family, and by the Popes before that. He was a supporter of European federalism with a common economic policy & a European army >> 15

In 1955, Einaudi hoped to be re-elected, despite his age (81) but the dominant party in Italian post-war politics, the Christian Democrats, were determined to get their hands on the Presidency this time around. They succeeded, but not with the candidate they intended >> 16

Their preferred candidate was the President of the Senate, Cesare Merzagora. However, the left of the party voted for the President of the Chamber of Deputies, Giovanni Gronchi (photo) and the left-wing opposition parties soon fell in behind this choice to spoil the party >> 17

On 29 April 1955, Gronchi was elected on 4th ballot, the first in which a simple majority is required.
As President, Gronchi is best remembered for attempts to conduct his own foreign policy initiatives, provoking the irritation of the government, dominated by his own party >> 18

Gronchi floated the idea of uniting the two Germanies with the new country remaining neutral for 20 years. He proposed this idea to the Soviet Ambassador without consulting the government, which then had to intervene to block him >> 19

On another occasion, the Foreign Minister Antonio Martino intercepted a letter that Gronchi had written personally to US President Eisenhower containing foreign policy objectives not discussed with the government. Again, Gronchi was blocked for exceeding his powers >> 20

Obviously, none of this helped Gronchi's relations with his party and other parties in government, meaning he had little chance of being re-elected in 1962. The leader of the Christian Democrats, Aldo Moro, chose Antonio Segni (photo) as the party's candidate instead >> 21

Segni won every ballot in the election of 1962 but only gained an overall majority on the 9th ballot on 6 May due to strong competition from Giuseppe Saragat of the Social Democratic Party, supported by left-wing parties, who would be the next President >> 22

Since the war, Segni had served twice as PM, as well as Deputy PM, Foreign Minister, Defence Minister, Interior Minister, Agricuture Minister, Education Minister (Governments in this period rearely lasted more than a few months), so he certainly did not lack experience >> 23

Segni was a conservative who did not get on well with the left but, ironically, it was under his Presidency, in December 1963, that Aldo Moro (photo) managed to form the first centre-left government of the Republic, bringing in the Socialist Party >> 24

Segni was close to the Carabinieri Commander, General De Lorenzo, and the latter formulated a plan for Segni, known as "Piano Solo", which foresaw the occupation by Carabinieri of TV stations, newspapers, left-wing party HQs, in the event of an attempted Communist takeover >> 25

Segni never resigned himself to the Socialists serving in government and tried continually to get them out. Then, during an especially heated discussion with Giuseppe Saragat (Social Democrat) & Christian Democrat PM Aldo Moro, on 7 August 1964, Segni suffered a stroke >> 26

Segni was declared "temporarily incapacitated" and his duties taken over by the President of the Senate Cesare Merzagora, as per the Constitution. On 6 December 1964, Segni resigned for health reasons (he died in 1972, aged 81) and a new election was called >> 27

The Presidential election of December 1964 was one of the most drawn-out in the history of the Republic, lasting almost two weeks (16-28 December) with 21 ballots required before anyone obtained an overall majority >> 28

For the first 7 rounds of voting, the result was almost identical with Giovanni Leone (Christian Democrat) first, Umberto Terracini (Comunist) second and Giuseppe Saragat (Social Democrat, also supported by Socialists) third, but without Leone gaining the necessary majority >> 29

At this point, the Socialists switched to their own candidate Pietro Nenni, joined by the Communists when Terracini dropped out after the 12th ballot. Leone persisted, finishing first in every ballot, without an overall majority, until he gave up after the 15th ballot >> 30

Without Leone, the Christian Democrats could not support Nenni as that meant voting with the Communists so, from the 18th ballot, they agreed with the Social Democrats to support Saragat. Finally, on the 21st ballot, Nenni pulled out & told the Socialists to vote Saragat >> 31

Giuseppe Saragat marked a change in the Presidency. Although he was born in 1898, he was the first President who was fully a child of the 20th century. He served in the First World War as a Lieutenant in the Artillery (only Gronchi among previous Presidents served in WW I) >> 32

More importantly, he was the first President to have taken an active part in the Resistance during WWII, albeit in a non-combat role. Under fascism he lived in exile from 1926 until Mussolini's fall in July 1943, when he returned to Rome & helped refound the Socialist Party >> 33

After Italy's surrender on 8 September 1943, followed by the German occupation of Rome, he joined the Resistance & edited the underground Socialist newspaper "Avanti!". On 18 October 1943, Saragat is arrested by the SS, along with other Socialists, on leaving a meeting >> 34

One of those arrested with him is Sandro Pertini, who would become President in 1978. They're tortured & sentenced to death but manage to escape from prison on 24 January 1944. You can read about their Resistance activity & escape in the linked thread>> 35

https://twitter.com/NickWhithorn/status/1353401693262786562?s=20

Following the war, Saragat served briefly as Italian Ambassador in Paris, then as President of the Constituent Assembly, which wrote the new Constitution. Later, he became Deputy PM and, at the moment of his election as President, Foreign Minister >> 36

Saragat's Presidency was generally a quiet affair. He never vetoed any legislation and always appointed PMs in line with the indications he received from the majority parties in Parliament. However, it almost ended in a dramatic fashion >> 37

In the night between 7 & 8 December 1970, a coup d'état was set in motion by Junio Valerio Borghese (photo, left), leader of neo-fascist group Fronte Nazionale, with the support of up to 1,000 members of the military & the P2 Masonic Lodge, led by Licio Gelli (photo, right) >> 38

As well as occupation of the studios of state broadcaster RAI and the principal centres of power, the plan also included taking President Saragat hostage. Gelli himself was supposed to perform this act, having an invitation to the Quirinale that evening >> 39

For some reason, after receiving a phone call, Borghese blocked the coup at 1.49 a.m., when it was already under way. Some believe the call was from Gelli, who couldn't go through with taking Saragat hostage, while others think it was Giulio Andreotti's secretary >> 40

Some even say that the whole coup was a sham, never really intended to succeed. Whatever the truth, Saragat was able to finish his term normally and another even more exasperating election was needed to elect the sixth President >> 41

Saragat was elected in 1964, after 21 ballots over 13 days. Choosing his successor took even longer: 23 ballots over 16 days (9-24 December 1971). This was due to stalemate created by the Christian Democrats, after their candidate, Amintore Fanfani, withdrew after 6th ballot>> 42

He had been outvoted by the Socialist Francesco De Martino and, from the 7th ballot right up to the 21st, the Christian Democrats abstained, meaning that De Martino won every ballot easily but never got near the numbers required for an overall majority >> 43

Then, for the 22nd ballot, the Christian Democrats chose Giovanni Leone and secured support for him from Republicans, Social Democrats & Liberals. Meanwhile, the Socialists ditched De Martino & switched to Pietro Nenni. On the 22nd ballot Leone missed election by 1 vote >> 44

Finally, on the 23rd ballot, Leone (photo) scraped home with 518 votes (504 were needed for election). To this day, this remains the longest Presidential election in Italian history and the lowest winning percentage of any President, just 51.9% of the votes >> 45

Leone had been PM twice (1963 & 1968), as well as Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies. He was a well-known lawyer, one of his most famous cases being counsel for Bernardo Mattarella (father of the current President) against two anti-mafia activists accused of defaming him >> 46

Leone's Presidential term was not to be a quiet affair like Saragat's. Political instability meant frequent changes of government, as the Christian Democrats argued amongst themselves over whether to return to centrist administrations or centre-left ones >> 47

The two major events that marked Leone's time at the Quirinale were the Lockheed scandal and the kidnapping and murder of Christian Democrat Leader Aldo Moro. Then, the end of his term was filled with gossip about irregularities committed by him and members of his family >> 48

The Lockheed Scandal, which broke in 1976, saw Leone accused of being a central figure in the affair involving the payment of bribes to Italian politicians in return for the Italian Air Force ordering aircraft from the US Company >> 49

Accusations came mainly from the magazine "L'Espresso" & leading figures in the Radical Party, such as Marco Pannella & Emma Bonino. Nothing was proved but the Christian Democrats did little to defend Leone, who felt it inappropriate for the President to get involved >> 50

The lingering taint of suspicion and the fallout from the kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro by the Red Brigades in 1978 (see linked thread below) induced Leone to resign just over 6 months before the end of his term of office on 15 June 1978 >> 51

https://twitter.com/NickWhithorn/status/1371801227495882753?t=tSCdONYOWUL9IyLKGWW6XQ&s=19

Leone was the first President to use the Constitutional power to dissolve Parliament before the end of its 5-year term. Previously, new governments had always been formed without a need for early elections but twice during Leone's term this proved impossible: in 1972 & 1976 >> 52

Leone supported shortening the Presidential term of office from 7 years to 5 & barring re-election of a President. The latter was also proposed by Pres. Segni but, as it requires a Constitutional Law with two-thirds majority in both Houses, Parliament never showed interest >> 53

The current President, Sergio Mattarella, also supports barring re-election of Presidents and has cited this as one of the reasons for not seeking re-election in 2022, despite his widespread popularity and formal & informal pressure from political forces to do so >> 54

The 1978 Presidential election was also quite long, 16 ballots over 10 days (29 June to 8 July) but quite straightforward. The Christian Democrats were weak following the Lockheed Scandal & the loss of Aldo Moro and, in the first 3 ballots, their candidate performer badly >> 55

They then withdrew their candidate, Guido Gonella, as did the Socialists, who were supporting Pietro Nenni again. This left the Communist candidate, Giorgio Amendola, to dominate every ballot, right up to the 15th, without achieving a majority as most parties abstained >> 56

The leader of the Socialists, Bettino Craxi (photo), sensed the Christian Democrats' weakness and a behind-the-scenes armwrestling contest saw him come out on top. Thus, on the 16th ballot, his choice, Sandro Pertini, won on a landslide as other parties fell in with It >> 57

Thus, Sandro Pertini (photo) became the 7th President of the Republic with the largest majority ever recorded, 832 votes out of 995, or 82.3%. Pertini was destined to transform the public image of the President and still remains to this day probably the most popular ever >> 58

It is no surprise that Pertini was such a "revolutionary" President if you read the story of his struggle against fascism (see thread below). To get a measure of the man, see what Saragat says about his behaviour in prison awaiting the death penalty >> 59

https://twitter.com/NickWhithorn/status/1353401693262786562?s=20

In keeping with his style and due to his uncompromising manner, Pertini never became a Minister, despite sitting in Parliament from 1948 right up to his election as President, although he did serve as Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies from 1968 to 1976 >> 60

Pertini was the first President of the Republic to appoint a non-Christian Democrat PM when he gave the job to Giovanni Spadolini (shaking hands with Pertini in the photo) from the Republican Party in 1981. This was considered a true revolution >> 61

In 1983, things went a step further when Pertini appointed Bettino Craxi PM, the first Socialist to hold the office in the Republic. Moreover, It meant that, for two years, President & PM were both Socialists. Despite this, the two men did not get on especially well >> 62

On one occasion, Craxi turned up at the Quirinale to meet Pertini wearing jeans. Pertini refused to speak to him and sent him away with instructions to return properly dressed (remember Saragat's words that Pertini was as elegant as the Duke of Edinburgh, even in prison) >> 63

Unlike previous Presidents, who had acted more as "notaries", Pertini did not hesitate to interfere in day to day politics when he thought it necessary, making full use of the "moralsuasion" his role afforded him, much to the irritation of politicians on all sides >> 64

Some felt he was overstepping the mark & risked moving Italy towards a Presidential system, such as France, rather than the Parliamentary Republic intended by the "Founding Fathers" (one of whom was Pertini himself). The media often referred to it as a "Pertinian Republic" >> 65

Few politicians, however, were able to stand up to him as he was so popular with the public. Pertini was dubbed "the people's President" because of his empathy with the joys & suffering of the nation. Sadly, his time in office saw Italy experience more suffering than joy >> 66

Pertini's term saw a 3-pronged attack on Italian democracy by Red Brigades, neo-fascist terrorists & Cosa Nostra, with help from the P2 Masonic Lodge & elements of the Secret Services. This attack preceded Pertini & continued afterwards but reached its peak in this period >> 67

Pertini's term witnessed the murder by Cosa Nostra of Boris Giuliano, Head of the Flying Squad in Palermo (1979), of Piersanti Mattarella, brother of current President Sergio Mattarella (1980), of General Carlo Alberto dalla Chiesa (1982), and of Judge Rocco Chinnici (1983) >> 68

Other tragic events included the Irpinia earthquake in November 1980, which killed 3,000 people, injured 9,000 & left 280,000 homeless. 1980 also saw the Ustica tragedy, when an airliner was hit by a missile, killing all on board (see thread below) >> 69

https://twitter.com/NickWhithorn/status/1409224151047577603?t=ZAagVfuNdp6_oBEVzxkbmQ&s=19

Pertini guided the country through this traumatic period in its history becoming a symbol of the State that refuses to give in. Of all the tragedies of that era, Pertini's empathy shone through in his reaction to two very different terrible events: Bologna & Vermicino >> 70

On 2 August 1980, a bomb planted by neo-fascist terrorists exploded at Bologna Station killing 85 & wounding 200 (see thread below). Pertini rushed to Bologna & visited the wounded in hospital. On leaving, he cried openly in front of the TV cameras >> 71

https://twitter.com/NickWhithorn/status/1422183927847047168?t=0NpBR0Uj7gIbtYrs_IK5tw&s=19

In June 1981, 5-year-old Alfredino Rampi fell into a well at Vermicino near Rome. Over the next 3 days, Italy held its breath in the hope he could be saved (see thread below). Pertini visited the scene to comfort the parents & even spoke to the boy >> 72

https://twitter.com/NickWhithorn/status/1403015498619555843?t=ZBW0LKNghdWOCbbbYcijWw&s=19

Despite the seemingly endless tragedies that afflicted Italy during Pertini's Presidency, the image Italians remember more than any other is one of joy: Pertini celebrating Tardelli's goal in the 1982 World Cup Final in Madrid, won 3-1 by Italy against West Germany >> 73

Another lasting image from the 1982 World Cup that has remained in people's memories is that of Pertini playing cards with Enzo Bearzot, Dino Zoff & Franco Causio on board the plane carrying the team back to Italy after the final, with the trophy on the table >> 74

Pertini was always going to be a hard act to follow. He had completely changed the face of the Presidency from that of an office occupied by grey boring bureucrats to one playing an active role in political life and closely identifying with ordinary people >> 75

The election of the 8th President was straightforward. The previous three elections had needed 21, 23 & 16 ballots to get a result but this time the Christian Democrats secured agreement with Socialists, Communists, Liberals, Republicans & Social Democrats to vote one name >> 76

Thus, Francesco Cossiga (photo) was elected on the 1st ballot, even though a two-thirds majority was required. At 56, he was the youngest President ever elected (minimum age is 50). A Christian Democrat from Sardinia (as was President Segni), he was President of the Senate >> 77

Cossiga was elected on 24 June 1985. Pertini's term did not end until 9 July but he resigned on 29 June to facilitate the transition and Cossiga was sworn in on 3 July. His was to be a relatively smooth Presidency for the first 5 years, with a turbulent final 2 years >> 78

Cossiga was an experienced politician having served as PM 1979-80, Interior Minister 1976-78 & President of the Senate 1983-85. His time as PM saw the Ustica disaster & Bologna Station bombing, while he resigned as Interior Minister after Aldo Moro was killed by Red Brigades>> 79

As the Minister primarily responsible for finding and saving Aldo Moro after his kidnapping, Cossiga was heavily criticised for his handling of the case, many doubting he and other Christian Democrat Ministers had any sincere desire to rescue Moro >> 80

As for the Bologna Station bombing, in the immediate aftermath Cossiga (then PM) supported the theory of a boiler explosion. Initial investigations to disprove this theory gave the perpetrators time to get away before the police started looking for neo-fascist activists >> 81

Only in February 2007 did Cossiga reveal what he knew about the Ustica disaster. He said he was informed by the Italian Secret Services that the airliner was hit by a missile fired by a French jet from in an attempt to shoot down a Libyan plane carrying Gheddafi >> 82

For the first few years of his term Cossiga's approach was a sort of compromise between the orthodox Presidents before Pertini and the active approach taken by the latter. The fall of the Berlin Wall at the end of 1989 saw Cossiga's attitude to politics start to change >> 83

Up to then, the Italian political system had been based on contraposition of the 2 largest parties, Christian Democrats & Communists, whose identity was now bound to change. Cossiga was among the first to realise this so, in his own words, he "took a pickaxe to the system" >> 84

Parties and politicians were generally irritated by Cossiga's hectoring. One of the instruments provided for in the Constitution is a so-called "Message to the Chambers" in which a President can express his views/suggestions on a topic to Parliament >> 85

It has no legal effect but is a way of reminding Parliament of its duty to deal with particular issues. It is hardly ever used: Segni, Leone, Ciampi & Napolitano sent one each. Other Presidents none, except for Cossiga, who sent eight between July 1990 & January 1992 >> 86

These messages concerned reforms of the Italian institutions & justice system considered essential & long overdue by Cossiga which could now possibly be agreed upon without the strong ideological divisions imposed by the Cold War. Parties, however, were reluctant to change >> 87

Seeing his efforts come to nothing, Cossiga became more & more frustrated and frequently referred to leading politicians using colourful expressions, such as "a zombie with a moustache", "a liar, blowhard, typical provincial boss" or "a comeback illiterate" >> 88

In 1990, PM Giulio Andreotti revealed the existence of the stay-behind organisation "Gladio" set up in Italy to act as a paramilitary resistance group in the event of a Communist takeover. Cossiga proudly admitted his role in setting up the group & being an active member >> 89

On 6 December 1991, the left-wing parties in Parliament (the Communist Party was dissolved in February 1991) requested Cossiga's impeachment on numerous charges, including involvement in Gladio. The Parliamentary committee responsible cleared Cossiga on all charges in 1993 >> 90

By the time the committee reported Cossiga was no longer President. He resigned on 28 April 1992, just over 2 months before the end of his term. He was exasperated with traditional parties, who resisted his proposed reforms & performed badly in the elections of April 1992 >> 91

His exasperation was apparent in his 1991 "End of Year Speech", a speech made by the sitting President on national TV on the evening of 31 December each year. This was the shortest in history, three & a half minutes, to say he had nothing to say >> 92

A joint session of Parliament to elect the 9th President was convened for 13 May 1992. Meanwhile, President of the Senate, Giovanni Spadolini, assumed the Presidential powers. This time, the election promised to be different as the Parliamentary balance of power had changed >> 93

The April Parliamentary elections had seen the arrival of Lega Nord, the weakening of Christian Democrats, Socialists and traditional smaller parties of government, such as Liberals, Republicans & Social Democrats. The Communist Party had ceased to exist & split into two >> 94

The election started much like any other & looked like it could become one of the longest. The greater fragmentation made it difficult to find consensus. Then, it ended dramatically, as a shocked Parliament was forced to make a decision by the terrible events of 23 May 1992 >> 95

After early rounds of tactical voting, the Christian Democrats brought in their chosen candidate Arnaldo Forlani (photo) in the fifth ballot. He got 469 votes, just 39 short of election. In the 7th ballot he reached 479 votes; still 29 votes short of a quorum >> 96

On paper, he should have had more than those 29 missing votes but some within the Christian Democrats were holding out for veteran powerbroker & seven-times PM Giulio Andreotti (photo), who would be presented as the "saviour" when all other candidates had been tried >> 97

At this point, Forlani's candidature was ended and, after the eighth ballot the Communists withdrew their candidate to be the first woman President, Nilde Iotti (photo). From the 11th ballot the Socialists presented Giuliano Vassalli >> 98

Vassalli (photo) was one of the group that helped Pertini & Saragat escape from prison in 1944 & would later become President of the Constitutional Court. His candidature gained support, so the Christian Democrats put forward an independent, Giovanni Conso, to counter him >> 99

After the 14th ballot Vassalli withdrew and the 15th ballot, on Saturday 23 May 1992, saw Conso fall way short of a majority. Complete stalemate had been reached and that part of the Christian Democrats supporting Andreotti prepared to make their move in the next ballot >> 100

They never got the chance. The same day, Saturday 23 May 1992, at 17.58, the Italian State, at a moment of extreme vulnerability, came under direct violent attack, as Cosa Nostra murdered Giovanni Falcone, his wife & 3 police protection officers at Capaci >> 101

This was one of the most shocking events in post-war Italian history & occurred at a moment when the Italian state was perceived as being very weak. The political system was being undermined by the "tangentopoli" corruption scandal & now seemed unable to choose a President >> 102

Now, the mafia had demonstrated that the state was unable (or unwilling) to protect one of its most prominent loyal servants. This thread is about the Presidency so I won't go off on a tangent by talking about Falcone. You can read about him here >> 103

https://twitter.com/NickWhithorn/status/1262099458877243392?s=20

The shock of Falcone's murder & the way it had been carried out finally stirred Parliament into action. Two days later, on Monday 25 May 1992, Oscar Luigi Scalfaro (photo), Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies, was elected on the 16th ballot with 672 votes (quorum of 508) >> 104

Scalfaro was a Christian Democrat who'd served as Minister of Interior, Education & Transport. Andreotti's candidacy was dropped as inappropriate in the circumstances. Just 2 months earlier, Andreotti's man in Palermo, Salvo Lima (photo), had been killed by the mafia >> 105

Lima's was the go-between between mafia & Andreotti & his murder was a sign that the mafia no longer trusted politicians from traditional parties to deliver what they wanted. Indeed, they would soon shift their "loyalty" to a new party: Berlusconi's 'Forza Italia' >> 106

Falcone's murder was soon followed by that of his friend & colleague Paolo Borsellino. You can read his story in the thread below. The state was under direct violent attack from the mafia, commanded by Totò Riina, and seemed powerless to react >> 107

https://twitter.com/NickWhithorn/status/1276232420677779458?s=20

Public anger at the state's apparent surrender to the mafia spilled over at the funeral of five police protection officers who died with Borsellino. Crowds broke through the police cordon & Scalfaro was jostled & insulted (from 1'15'' in video) >> 108