his head is enlarged and has heavily outlined eyes & pupils <accentuated gaze> that are typical of benin art, but quite unlike benin's depictions of Portuguese with small eyes and proportionate heads
although he has the typical rendering of European facial features (nose & beard)
his unique patterned hat with a knotted rope around its rim (rather than the usual helmet shown on Portuguese figures 👇🏾) and the seating posture (reserved for edo dignitaries versus the usually standing/crouching portuguese) may indicate his higher status from his peers
the figure is dated to the 18th cent and is at the met (number 1991.17.31)
i didn't include it in this article b'se i thought i could find another source describing it besides kate erza's brief note; pg 69 in "Royal Art of Benin"
re-reading Bruce Hall's "race in Muslim west Africa"
he may have taken too many liberties with environmental determinism
the Sahara's expansion alone can't explain the increasing power of the Arabo-berber groups in the west of Niger, versus their very reduced power east of Niger
2nd pic from A. Holl's "Ethnoarchaeology of Shuwa-Arab Settlements"
many attribute the hassaniya-arab conquest of Mauritania to desert expansion
but the opposite happened in chad/sudan where the arabs were subordinate in kanem, darfur, wadai and bagirmi despite being themajority
James L. A. Webb's "Desert Frontier" popularized this theory of the growing desert leading hassaniya-arab groups pushing berbers south who pushed the sedentary black-west african groups south as well
*reminds me of NGOs reducing farmer-herder conflicts to "climate change"
robin law argued convincingly against the use of mounted soldiers in African armies before the introduction of all three horse-equipment; bridles (with bits), stirrups and saddles (before 1200s)
but he notes that the bridles were in used early
horsebits from the Bura 300-1000AD
its unfortunate that the original sculpture, which would have been just under a meter tall, isn't well preserved
"From an African artistic monument to a Museum loot: A history of the 16th century Benin bronze plaques."
The manufacture, function and interpretation of an African masterpiece
The Benin bronze plaques are among the most celebrated works of African art in the world
the rulers of Benin Kingdom commissioned monumental works of art as an expression of their power and a repository of Benin's history isaacsamuel.substack.com/p/from-an-afri…
The over 1,000 bronze plaques are the most distinctive of the Benin corpus; depicting scenes of medieval courtly life
their violent theft and distribution to western institutions in 1897 has complicated interpretations of their historical significance isaacsamuel.substack.com/p/from-an-afri…
"Morocco, Songhai, Bornu and the quest to create an African empire to rival the Ottomans.
An ambitious sultan's dream of a Trans-Atlantic, Trans-Saharan empire"
-Diplomacy, assassins, conquest and disintergration
the 1,000 miles of barren desert has for long been perceived as a barrier separating “north Africa” from “sub-saharan Africa”
but from the 11th to the 16th cent, states on either side crossed the Sahara and established some of the world's largest empires isaacsamuel.substack.com/p/morocco-song…
16th cent. western Africa was dominated by the empires of Kanem, Songhai & Morocco but the Ottoman threat radically altered this political landscape
my next article is about an ambitious ruler who hoped to create an African empire to rival the ottomans and how his plans faltered
in response to a request of fealty from Ottoman emperor Suleiman i to the Moroccan sultan Muhammad al-Shaykh, the latter said: “I will only respond to the sultan of fishing boats when I reach Cairo"
few weeks later, assassins crawled into his tent and sent his head to Istanbul
in response to a request of tribute from Moroccan sultan Ahmad to Songhai emperor askiya Ishaq, the latter said : "the Ahmad who would hear news of such an agreement was not he and the Ishaq who would hear such a proposition had not yet been born"
"Rare to nonexistent are discrete villages, much less ruins of state capitals or elite dwellings,
but everywhere one sinks an excavation unit and carefully sifts for evidence, one finds a low "background noise"
Phantom capitals and small scale societies ...
on the ever elusive capitals of the ghana and mali empires, and the small scale societies of the tellem in bandiagara