So, I have been harping on about electronics for a while, and it's about time that I made a list of topics that should be in your arsenal if you are looking to get into it.
An incredibly long thread -
An incredibly long thread -
1) Fundamentals of Electricity - You think you know this. You don’t.
1. Voltage (Potential Difference)
Voltage is the electrical “pressure” that pushes charge through a circuit, measured in volts (V). It defines how much energy per charge is available and is crucial for understanding battery ratings, logic levels, and maximum component ratings.
2. Current (Amperes)
Current is the flow of electric charge per second, measured in amperes (A). It determines heat generation, motor torque, and LED brightness, and it’s essential to size wires, traces, and protection devices correctly.
3. Resistance (Ohms)
Resistance opposes current flow and is measured in ohms (Ω). It’s used to set currents, divide voltages, and control bias in circuits. Heat dissipation due to resistance is given by P=I²R and must be managed.
4. Power (Watts)
Power is the rate of energy use, calculated as P=VI, I²R, or V²/R. It’s important when sizing components to prevent overheating, particularly for resistors, regulators, and transistors.
5. Energy (Joules)
Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J), and is calculated as E = P·t. It helps estimate battery runtime and capacitor storage, with capacitors storing energy as ½ C·V².
6. Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law links voltage, current, and resistance in the equation V=IR. It’s the foundation for most DC calculations, such as selecting the right resistor for an LED.
7. Series Circuits
In a series circuit, components share the same current, but their voltages add up. A break in one component stops the entire chain, making total voltage drop an important design factor.
8. Parallel Circuits
Parallel circuits have the same voltage across each branch, but the total current is the sum of branch currents. Current sharing requires care to avoid imbalance between branches.
9. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
KVL states that the sum of all voltage rises and drops around a closed loop equals zero. It’s essential for verifying voltage distribution in a circuit.
10. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
KCL states that the total current entering a node equals the total current leaving it. It’s a key principle for solving unknown currents in multi-branch circuits.
1. Voltage (Potential Difference)
Voltage is the electrical “pressure” that pushes charge through a circuit, measured in volts (V). It defines how much energy per charge is available and is crucial for understanding battery ratings, logic levels, and maximum component ratings.
2. Current (Amperes)
Current is the flow of electric charge per second, measured in amperes (A). It determines heat generation, motor torque, and LED brightness, and it’s essential to size wires, traces, and protection devices correctly.
3. Resistance (Ohms)
Resistance opposes current flow and is measured in ohms (Ω). It’s used to set currents, divide voltages, and control bias in circuits. Heat dissipation due to resistance is given by P=I²R and must be managed.
4. Power (Watts)
Power is the rate of energy use, calculated as P=VI, I²R, or V²/R. It’s important when sizing components to prevent overheating, particularly for resistors, regulators, and transistors.
5. Energy (Joules)
Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J), and is calculated as E = P·t. It helps estimate battery runtime and capacitor storage, with capacitors storing energy as ½ C·V².
6. Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law links voltage, current, and resistance in the equation V=IR. It’s the foundation for most DC calculations, such as selecting the right resistor for an LED.
7. Series Circuits
In a series circuit, components share the same current, but their voltages add up. A break in one component stops the entire chain, making total voltage drop an important design factor.
8. Parallel Circuits
Parallel circuits have the same voltage across each branch, but the total current is the sum of branch currents. Current sharing requires care to avoid imbalance between branches.
9. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
KVL states that the sum of all voltage rises and drops around a closed loop equals zero. It’s essential for verifying voltage distribution in a circuit.
10. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
KCL states that the total current entering a node equals the total current leaving it. It’s a key principle for solving unknown currents in multi-branch circuits.
2) Passive Components - The building blocks of circuit design
1. Resistors (Types, Color Codes)
Resistors oppose current flow, measured in ohms (Ω). They come in various types (carbon film, metal film, wire wound) and are identified by color codes for value and tolerance.
2. Potentiometers & Variable Resistors
Adjustable resistors that allow manual tuning of resistance. Common in control knobs, calibration circuits, and signal adjustment.
3. Capacitors (Types, Polarized vs. Non-Polarized)
Store electrical energy in an electric field. Electrolytic types are polarized for high capacitance; ceramic and film types are non-polarized for stability at high frequencies.
4. Inductors & Coils
Store energy in a magnetic field when current flows. Used for filtering, energy storage in power supplies, and RF tuning.
5. Transformers
Transfer AC power between windings, allowing voltage step-up/down and isolation. Core material and winding ratio determine performance.
6. Ferrite Beads
Passive components that suppress high-frequency noise in power and signal lines. Essential for EMI control.
7. RC Circuits (Low-pass / High-pass Filters)
Combining resistors and capacitors creates filters that block unwanted frequency ranges. Used in audio and signal conditioning.
8. LC Circuits (Resonance)
An inductor and capacitor in combination can resonate at a specific frequency, useful for tuning and filtering applications.
9. Impedance
The total opposition to AC current, combining resistance and reactance. Matching impedance ensures maximum power transfer.
10. Reactance
The frequency-dependent opposition from capacitors (capacitive reactance) and inductors (inductive reactance). Key in AC and RF circuit design.
1. Resistors (Types, Color Codes)
Resistors oppose current flow, measured in ohms (Ω). They come in various types (carbon film, metal film, wire wound) and are identified by color codes for value and tolerance.
2. Potentiometers & Variable Resistors
Adjustable resistors that allow manual tuning of resistance. Common in control knobs, calibration circuits, and signal adjustment.
3. Capacitors (Types, Polarized vs. Non-Polarized)
Store electrical energy in an electric field. Electrolytic types are polarized for high capacitance; ceramic and film types are non-polarized for stability at high frequencies.
4. Inductors & Coils
Store energy in a magnetic field when current flows. Used for filtering, energy storage in power supplies, and RF tuning.
5. Transformers
Transfer AC power between windings, allowing voltage step-up/down and isolation. Core material and winding ratio determine performance.
6. Ferrite Beads
Passive components that suppress high-frequency noise in power and signal lines. Essential for EMI control.
7. RC Circuits (Low-pass / High-pass Filters)
Combining resistors and capacitors creates filters that block unwanted frequency ranges. Used in audio and signal conditioning.
8. LC Circuits (Resonance)
An inductor and capacitor in combination can resonate at a specific frequency, useful for tuning and filtering applications.
9. Impedance
The total opposition to AC current, combining resistance and reactance. Matching impedance ensures maximum power transfer.
10. Reactance
The frequency-dependent opposition from capacitors (capacitive reactance) and inductors (inductive reactance). Key in AC and RF circuit design.
3) Semiconductors & Active Components - Your bread and butter as a hardware engineer
1. Diodes (Rectifier, Zener, Schottky)
Components that allow current to flow in one direction. Variants offer voltage regulation (Zener) or low forward voltage drop (Schottky).
2. Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Semiconductors that emit light when forward biased. Available in various colors, brightness levels, and wavelengths.
3. Photodiodes
Diodes that generate current when exposed to light. Used in sensors, optical communication, and safety systems.
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Current-controlled devices used for switching and amplification. Operate in active, cutoff, and saturation modes.
5. Field Effect Transistors (FET, MOSFET)
Voltage-controlled devices offering high input impedance. Widely used in switching power supplies and logic circuits.
6. Thyristors & SCRs
Latch-on semiconductor switches for high-power AC/DC control. Common in motor control and power regulation.
7. Optocouplers
Devices that use light to electrically isolate two circuits. Essential for protecting sensitive electronics from high voltages.
8. Voltage Regulators (Linear, LDO)
Maintain a constant output voltage regardless of input or load changes. LDO types operate with low input-output voltage differences.
9. Switches & Relays
Switches mechanically open or close circuits; relays use electromagnetic actuation for electrical control of high-power loads.
10. Transient Voltage Suppression (TVS Diodes)
Protect circuits from voltage spikes by clamping excess voltage. Critical for ESD and surge protection.
1. Diodes (Rectifier, Zener, Schottky)
Components that allow current to flow in one direction. Variants offer voltage regulation (Zener) or low forward voltage drop (Schottky).
2. Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Semiconductors that emit light when forward biased. Available in various colors, brightness levels, and wavelengths.
3. Photodiodes
Diodes that generate current when exposed to light. Used in sensors, optical communication, and safety systems.
4. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Current-controlled devices used for switching and amplification. Operate in active, cutoff, and saturation modes.
5. Field Effect Transistors (FET, MOSFET)
Voltage-controlled devices offering high input impedance. Widely used in switching power supplies and logic circuits.
6. Thyristors & SCRs
Latch-on semiconductor switches for high-power AC/DC control. Common in motor control and power regulation.
7. Optocouplers
Devices that use light to electrically isolate two circuits. Essential for protecting sensitive electronics from high voltages.
8. Voltage Regulators (Linear, LDO)
Maintain a constant output voltage regardless of input or load changes. LDO types operate with low input-output voltage differences.
9. Switches & Relays
Switches mechanically open or close circuits; relays use electromagnetic actuation for electrical control of high-power loads.
10. Transient Voltage Suppression (TVS Diodes)
Protect circuits from voltage spikes by clamping excess voltage. Critical for ESD and surge protection.
4) Power Electronics - These are for high-voltage applications. Extremely useful for industrial and heavy-automotive electronics
1. AC vs DC
AC alternates polarity over time, while DC maintains a constant polarity. Mains power is AC; electronics often run on DC.
2. Rectification (Half/Full/Bridge)
Converts AC to DC using diodes. Bridge rectifiers are the most common for full-wave conversion.
3. Filtering & Smoothing
Uses capacitors and sometimes inductors to reduce ripple after rectification, producing a stable DC output.
4. DC-DC Converters (Buck/Boost/Buck-Boost)
Switching regulators that efficiently step voltage down, up, or both.
5. Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
High-efficiency power supplies using high-frequency switching and filtering for compact designs.
6. Battery Basics (Li-ion, NiMH, Lead-Acid)
Different chemistries with unique voltage, capacity, and charging requirements.
7. Charging Circuits
Provide safe charging profiles (e.g., CC/CV) and cell balancing for battery packs.
8. Power Factor
Ratio of real to apparent power in AC systems. High power factor improves efficiency and reduces wasted energy.
9. UPS & Backup Power
Systems that maintain power during outages, often using batteries or supercapacitors.
10. Heat Dissipation & Thermal Management
Methods such as heatsinks, fans, and thermal vias to remove heat from components and maintain reliability.
1. AC vs DC
AC alternates polarity over time, while DC maintains a constant polarity. Mains power is AC; electronics often run on DC.
2. Rectification (Half/Full/Bridge)
Converts AC to DC using diodes. Bridge rectifiers are the most common for full-wave conversion.
3. Filtering & Smoothing
Uses capacitors and sometimes inductors to reduce ripple after rectification, producing a stable DC output.
4. DC-DC Converters (Buck/Boost/Buck-Boost)
Switching regulators that efficiently step voltage down, up, or both.
5. Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
High-efficiency power supplies using high-frequency switching and filtering for compact designs.
6. Battery Basics (Li-ion, NiMH, Lead-Acid)
Different chemistries with unique voltage, capacity, and charging requirements.
7. Charging Circuits
Provide safe charging profiles (e.g., CC/CV) and cell balancing for battery packs.
8. Power Factor
Ratio of real to apparent power in AC systems. High power factor improves efficiency and reduces wasted energy.
9. UPS & Backup Power
Systems that maintain power during outages, often using batteries or supercapacitors.
10. Heat Dissipation & Thermal Management
Methods such as heatsinks, fans, and thermal vias to remove heat from components and maintain reliability.
5) Measurement & Testing - These are for when you nee to find out how good is something doing, or when you fuck something up. And trust me, you will!
1. Multimeter Usage
Measures voltage, current, resistance, and continuity. The most essential troubleshooting tool.
2. Oscilloscope Basics
Displays voltage over time to visualize waveforms, noise, and transients.
3. Function Generators
Produce test waveforms such as sine, square, and triangle for circuit testing.
4. Logic Analyzers
Capture and decode digital signals to debug communication protocols.
5. Spectrum Analyzers
Display signal power versus frequency to measure EMI, harmonics, and RF signals.
6. LCR Meters
Measure inductance, capacitance, resistance, and ESR for component verification.
7. Power Meters
Measure real-time voltage, current, power, and energy usage of devices.
8. Continuity Testing
Checks for low-resistance paths to verify connections or detect shorts.
9. Signal Probing Techniques
Proper methods for connecting test equipment to avoid distortion or false readings.
10. Safety Precautions
Procedures for working with high voltage, charged capacitors, and live circuits safely.
1. Multimeter Usage
Measures voltage, current, resistance, and continuity. The most essential troubleshooting tool.
2. Oscilloscope Basics
Displays voltage over time to visualize waveforms, noise, and transients.
3. Function Generators
Produce test waveforms such as sine, square, and triangle for circuit testing.
4. Logic Analyzers
Capture and decode digital signals to debug communication protocols.
5. Spectrum Analyzers
Display signal power versus frequency to measure EMI, harmonics, and RF signals.
6. LCR Meters
Measure inductance, capacitance, resistance, and ESR for component verification.
7. Power Meters
Measure real-time voltage, current, power, and energy usage of devices.
8. Continuity Testing
Checks for low-resistance paths to verify connections or detect shorts.
9. Signal Probing Techniques
Proper methods for connecting test equipment to avoid distortion or false readings.
10. Safety Precautions
Procedures for working with high voltage, charged capacitors, and live circuits safely.
6) Digital Electronics - This right here? This is the gateway to computer hardware and architecture.
1. Binary Number System
Base-2 system using 0 and 1, fundamental for all digital logic.
2. Logic Levels
Voltage thresholds representing logical HIGH (1) and LOW (0) in a circuit.
3. Logic Gates
Basic building blocks (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR) that perform Boolean operations.
4. Truth Tables
Tables showing the output for all input combinations of a logic function.
5. Combinational Logic
Output depends only on current inputs — no memory (e.g., adders, multiplexers).
6. Sequential Logic
Uses memory elements (flip-flops, latches) — output depends on past and present inputs.
7. Flip-Flops
Basic memory storage units (D, T, JK, SR) used in counters and registers.
8.Registers & Counters
Store and manipulate binary data in microcontrollers and CPUs.
9. Number Systems Conversion
Binary <-> Decimal <-> Hexadecimal for easier human interpretation of data.
10. Propagation Delay
Time it takes for a signal to pass through a logic element — critical in high-speed designs.
1. Binary Number System
Base-2 system using 0 and 1, fundamental for all digital logic.
2. Logic Levels
Voltage thresholds representing logical HIGH (1) and LOW (0) in a circuit.
3. Logic Gates
Basic building blocks (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR) that perform Boolean operations.
4. Truth Tables
Tables showing the output for all input combinations of a logic function.
5. Combinational Logic
Output depends only on current inputs — no memory (e.g., adders, multiplexers).
6. Sequential Logic
Uses memory elements (flip-flops, latches) — output depends on past and present inputs.
7. Flip-Flops
Basic memory storage units (D, T, JK, SR) used in counters and registers.
8.Registers & Counters
Store and manipulate binary data in microcontrollers and CPUs.
9. Number Systems Conversion
Binary <-> Decimal <-> Hexadecimal for easier human interpretation of data.
10. Propagation Delay
Time it takes for a signal to pass through a logic element — critical in high-speed designs.
7) Microcontrollers & Embedded Systems - Brains inside your gadgets
1. What is a Microcontroller?
A small computer on a chip with CPU, memory, and peripherals for dedicated tasks.
2. Popular Families
Examples: Arduino (ATmega), STM32, PIC, ESP32 - each with different strengths.
3. GPIO (General Purpose I/O)
Configurable pins for digital input/output, controlling LEDs, switches, and sensors.
4. Analog Inputs (ADC)
Convert analog voltages into digital values for processing.
5. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
Digital technique for controlling motor speed, LED brightness, etc.
6. Serial Communication (UART, SPI, I²C)
Standard protocols for talking to sensors, displays, and other devices.
7. Timers & Interrupts
Hardware features for precise timing and responding to events instantly.
8. Firmware vs Software
Firmware is low-level code running directly on hardware; software runs on general-purpose systems.
9. Bootloaders
Small programs that allow uploading firmware without external programmers.
10. Low-Power Modes
Microcontroller states that save energy when idle, critical for battery devices.
1. What is a Microcontroller?
A small computer on a chip with CPU, memory, and peripherals for dedicated tasks.
2. Popular Families
Examples: Arduino (ATmega), STM32, PIC, ESP32 - each with different strengths.
3. GPIO (General Purpose I/O)
Configurable pins for digital input/output, controlling LEDs, switches, and sensors.
4. Analog Inputs (ADC)
Convert analog voltages into digital values for processing.
5. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
Digital technique for controlling motor speed, LED brightness, etc.
6. Serial Communication (UART, SPI, I²C)
Standard protocols for talking to sensors, displays, and other devices.
7. Timers & Interrupts
Hardware features for precise timing and responding to events instantly.
8. Firmware vs Software
Firmware is low-level code running directly on hardware; software runs on general-purpose systems.
9. Bootloaders
Small programs that allow uploading firmware without external programmers.
10. Low-Power Modes
Microcontroller states that save energy when idle, critical for battery devices.
8) PCB Design & Prototyping - Where ideas become real hardware
1. Breadboards & Jumper Wires
Reusable boards for quick prototyping without soldering. Great for testing circuits but poor for high-frequency or high-current designs.
2. Stripboards & Perfboards
Permanent prototyping boards with copper strips (stripboard) or isolated pads (perfboard) for soldered builds. Useful for small-run DIY projects.
3. Schematic Drawing
A symbolic representation of your circuit showing electrical connections and component relationships. The blueprint before PCB layout.
4. PCB Layout Design (Single/Double Layer)
Placing components and routing copper traces in CAD tools like KiCAD, Altium, or Eagle. Single-layer for simplicity, double-layer for compactness.
5. PCB Manufacturing Process
Involves etching copper, applying solder mask, adding silkscreen, drilling vias, and plating. Outsourced to fabs or done DIY for small boards.
6. Soldering Techniques (Through-Hole, SMD)
Through-hole for strong mechanical connection; SMD for compact, automated assembly. Mastering both expands your prototyping capabilities.
7. Desoldering Methods
Using solder wick, suction pumps, or hot-air stations to remove components without damaging pads. Crucial for repairs and rework.
8. Component Footprints & Packages
The physical layout of pins and pads on the PCB that matches a specific component’s shape and size. Incorrect footprints = unusable PCB.
9. Trace Width & Current Carrying Capacity
Trace size determines how much current it can safely handle without overheating. Calculated based on copper thickness and allowable temperature rise.
10. Ground Planes & Power Planes
Large copper areas that reduce noise, improve stability, and handle high currents. Essential for high-speed and low-noise designs.
1. Breadboards & Jumper Wires
Reusable boards for quick prototyping without soldering. Great for testing circuits but poor for high-frequency or high-current designs.
2. Stripboards & Perfboards
Permanent prototyping boards with copper strips (stripboard) or isolated pads (perfboard) for soldered builds. Useful for small-run DIY projects.
3. Schematic Drawing
A symbolic representation of your circuit showing electrical connections and component relationships. The blueprint before PCB layout.
4. PCB Layout Design (Single/Double Layer)
Placing components and routing copper traces in CAD tools like KiCAD, Altium, or Eagle. Single-layer for simplicity, double-layer for compactness.
5. PCB Manufacturing Process
Involves etching copper, applying solder mask, adding silkscreen, drilling vias, and plating. Outsourced to fabs or done DIY for small boards.
6. Soldering Techniques (Through-Hole, SMD)
Through-hole for strong mechanical connection; SMD for compact, automated assembly. Mastering both expands your prototyping capabilities.
7. Desoldering Methods
Using solder wick, suction pumps, or hot-air stations to remove components without damaging pads. Crucial for repairs and rework.
8. Component Footprints & Packages
The physical layout of pins and pads on the PCB that matches a specific component’s shape and size. Incorrect footprints = unusable PCB.
9. Trace Width & Current Carrying Capacity
Trace size determines how much current it can safely handle without overheating. Calculated based on copper thickness and allowable temperature rise.
10. Ground Planes & Power Planes
Large copper areas that reduce noise, improve stability, and handle high currents. Essential for high-speed and low-noise designs.
9) Signal Processing & Analog Circuits - Where smooth meets smart
1. Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)
High-gain differential amplifiers used for signal amplification, filtering, summing, and more. Core building block of analog design.
2. Comparator Circuits
Op-amp–like devices that output a digital HIGH or LOW based on which input is higher. Used in threshold detection and zero-crossing circuits.
3. Active Filters
Filters (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass) using op-amps for better performance than passive RC/LC filters. Shape signals while maintaining gain.
4. Voltage Followers (Buffer Circuits)
Op-amp configuration with unity gain for isolating circuits and preventing loading effects.
5. Instrumentation Amplifiers
Specialized amplifiers with high input impedance and excellent common-mode rejection, ideal for sensor and medical signal measurements.
6. Oscillators (RC, Crystal, Wien Bridge)
Circuits that generate periodic waveforms. Crystal oscillators for precision, RC for adjustable frequency, Wien bridge for low distortion sine waves.
7. Signal Modulation (AM, FM, PWM)
Techniques to encode information onto a carrier wave (AM, FM) or control power delivery (PWM). Essential for communication and motor control.
8. Analog Multiplexers
Electronic switches that route one of many analog signals to a single output. Saves pins and simplifies signal routing.
9. Noise & Signal Interference
Unwanted electrical variations that degrade signal quality. Sources include EMI, crosstalk, and thermal noise.
10. Shielding & Grounding
Techniques to reduce noise - using conductive enclosures, twisted-pair cables, and proper grounding schemes. Critical in sensitive analog systems.
1. Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)
High-gain differential amplifiers used for signal amplification, filtering, summing, and more. Core building block of analog design.
2. Comparator Circuits
Op-amp–like devices that output a digital HIGH or LOW based on which input is higher. Used in threshold detection and zero-crossing circuits.
3. Active Filters
Filters (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass) using op-amps for better performance than passive RC/LC filters. Shape signals while maintaining gain.
4. Voltage Followers (Buffer Circuits)
Op-amp configuration with unity gain for isolating circuits and preventing loading effects.
5. Instrumentation Amplifiers
Specialized amplifiers with high input impedance and excellent common-mode rejection, ideal for sensor and medical signal measurements.
6. Oscillators (RC, Crystal, Wien Bridge)
Circuits that generate periodic waveforms. Crystal oscillators for precision, RC for adjustable frequency, Wien bridge for low distortion sine waves.
7. Signal Modulation (AM, FM, PWM)
Techniques to encode information onto a carrier wave (AM, FM) or control power delivery (PWM). Essential for communication and motor control.
8. Analog Multiplexers
Electronic switches that route one of many analog signals to a single output. Saves pins and simplifies signal routing.
9. Noise & Signal Interference
Unwanted electrical variations that degrade signal quality. Sources include EMI, crosstalk, and thermal noise.
10. Shielding & Grounding
Techniques to reduce noise - using conductive enclosures, twisted-pair cables, and proper grounding schemes. Critical in sensitive analog systems.
10) Advanced Hardware Topics - The deep end of electronics
1, Embedded Linux Hardware Basics
Understanding SoCs, memory interfaces, bootloaders, and peripherals in Linux-capable boards like Raspberry Pi and BeagleBone.
2. FPGA Fundamentals
Field-Programmable Gate Arrays allow hardware-level reconfiguration using HDL (VHDL/Verilog) for parallel, high-speed tasks.
3. High-Speed PCB Design
Layout techniques for GHz-range signals—controlled impedance traces, matched lengths, and minimizing signal reflections.
4. Differential Signaling (LVDS, USB)
Two opposite-phase signals reduce noise and allow high-speed, long-distance data transmission with minimal interference.
5. EMI/EMC Considerations
Designing to reduce electromagnetic interference and meet regulatory compliance—shielding, filtering, and proper grounding.
6. Power Integrity
Ensuring stable, noise-free power delivery to components through decoupling capacitors, low-impedance planes, and proper routing.
7. RF Basics (Antennas, Impedance Matching)
Radio frequency fundamentals—antenna types, feedline design, and matching networks to maximize power transfer.
8. IoT Hardware Interfaces (BLE, Wi-Fi, LoRa)
Wireless communication modules and their hardware requirements for IoT device connectivity.
9. Sensor Integration (Analog & Digital)
Connecting and conditioning sensor outputs -handling ADC resolution, noise filtering, and communication protocols.
10. Hardware Debugging & Fault Analysis
Systematic troubleshooting using tools like oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, and thermal cameras to isolate and fix issues.
1, Embedded Linux Hardware Basics
Understanding SoCs, memory interfaces, bootloaders, and peripherals in Linux-capable boards like Raspberry Pi and BeagleBone.
2. FPGA Fundamentals
Field-Programmable Gate Arrays allow hardware-level reconfiguration using HDL (VHDL/Verilog) for parallel, high-speed tasks.
3. High-Speed PCB Design
Layout techniques for GHz-range signals—controlled impedance traces, matched lengths, and minimizing signal reflections.
4. Differential Signaling (LVDS, USB)
Two opposite-phase signals reduce noise and allow high-speed, long-distance data transmission with minimal interference.
5. EMI/EMC Considerations
Designing to reduce electromagnetic interference and meet regulatory compliance—shielding, filtering, and proper grounding.
6. Power Integrity
Ensuring stable, noise-free power delivery to components through decoupling capacitors, low-impedance planes, and proper routing.
7. RF Basics (Antennas, Impedance Matching)
Radio frequency fundamentals—antenna types, feedline design, and matching networks to maximize power transfer.
8. IoT Hardware Interfaces (BLE, Wi-Fi, LoRa)
Wireless communication modules and their hardware requirements for IoT device connectivity.
9. Sensor Integration (Analog & Digital)
Connecting and conditioning sensor outputs -handling ADC resolution, noise filtering, and communication protocols.
10. Hardware Debugging & Fault Analysis
Systematic troubleshooting using tools like oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, and thermal cameras to isolate and fix issues.
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