1) In 1415 the Florentine scholar Poggio Bracciolini discovered a lost manuscript of Cicero in the library of Cluny Abbey, France. The manuscript copied on vellum in the 700s, gave us for the first time Cicero's complete speeches against Catiline and the magistrate Verres..
2) Two years later in the summer of 1417 at Langres, France, Poggio discovered ten more previously unknown orations of Cicero including the oration for Aulus Caecina (Pro Caecina).
3) Carolingian scribes had made many copies of Vitruvius' monumental "On Architecture" but Poggio rediscovered the lost masterpiece in 1414 in the Abbey Library of Saint Gall, Switzerland. In 1425 at Montecassino, he discovered the first manuscript of Vitruvius' "On Aqueducts".
4) But perhaps Poggio's greatest find came at the Abbey of Fulda, Germany where he discovered the only surviving manuscript of Lucretius' scientific opus 'On the Nature of Things' (De rerum natura), ensuring it was quickly copied and helping supercharge Renaissance thought.
5) In a delightful aside, Poggio said that as he scoured manuscripts the name Lucretius jumped out to him because he recalled Cicero mentioning the name in his speeches. Read about the classical manuscript discoveries of Poggio Bracciolini in "The Swerve" by Stephen Greenblatt .
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1) Cassius Dio on the rise of disinformation, alternative facts and conspiracy theory in imperial Rome:
"Before the empire, all matters were brought before the senate and the people. Even when events happened far away, everyone knew of them, learned from them, wrote about them..
2) "The truth of events, though possibly coloured by fear, favour, friendship and emnity, was always there to see in books and public records. But after this time, most events that happened began to be kept secret and concealed from the people...
3) "Now even the little information that is by chance made public is not trusted because it cannot be verified. Things that never occurred are talked about constantly while at the same time events beyond any doubt remain unknown to the people...
1) Pliny took a surprisingly rational approach to the question of life after death, not typical of the classical world. Whether we agree or disagree, his logical train of thought can be appreciated:
"After our last day, we are all surely just as we were before our first day...
2) "Out of wishful thinking the mind projects itself into the future and creates a false life for itself after death; sometimes by attributing immortality to a soul, sometimes imagining we change into a new form, sometimes worshipping phantoms, or even turning a man into a god.."
3) "It is as if the way men breathe is somehow different to other living beings, or as if there were no animals known to live longer than us, animals for which no-one ever suggests a similar afterlife.."
1) The tools of ancient doctors and surgeons often bear an astonishing resemblance to those still used by medical experts today. Let's look at some Roman surgical equipment and compare them to today's equivalent. (Squeamish beware!)
First up, some trusty surgical scalpels...
2) Medical spatulas and spoon probes (specillum), the most common type of medical tool recovered from Roman times.
1) The best preserved Roman military diploma to survive from the ancient world: These highly prized bronze legal documents were issued to retiring non-citizen soldiers upon successful completion of their minimum required service: 25 years in the army or 26 years in the navy..
2) Military diplomas testified that the veteran had been honourably discharged and that he and his children were granted full Roman citizenship with all its legal benefits. Diplomas were notarised copies of decrees lodged in the military archives at Rome recording every veteran..
3) This incredibly preserved diploma was found during dredging of the River Sava near Slavonski Brod, Croatia in 1997. It had been issued to a veteran of the Roman navy based at Misenum (classis Misenensis) during the reign of the Emperor Vespasian in 71 AD.
1) Tacitus gives a fascinating insight into economies, trade and attitudes towards wealth at the northern frontiers of the Roman empire:
"Germanic peoples take pride not in how much coin they have but in how many animals they own - this is the only measure of wealth they value..
2) "The gods have denied the Germans gold and silver - maybe to punish them or perhaps to do them a favour, I cannot say. We can't be totally certain there are no gold or silver-bearing veins in Germany because after all, who has ever looked?"
3) "Either way, the Germans have a total lack of interest in owning or using gold and silver. The people are indifferent to precious gifts and you can see the silver vessels presented to their leaders thrown aside with disregard as if they were pottery.."
1) As well as arguing all matter was made of atoms, Lucretius described his opposite concept of the Void:
"The universe is not a closely packed mass of matter. The void exists in all things; an intangible and empty space. If void did not exist, things could not possibly move.."
2) "Matter obstructs and offers resistance. If only matter existed, resistance would be everywhere all the time and nothing could ever begin to yield. But as it is, we see with our eyes that many things on the earth, the sea and in the sky move in many different ways.."
3) "Furthermore, many things we perceive as solid, we learn on closer inspection have a porous structure: in a rocky cave all surfaces are moist with plentiful seeping water, nutrients travel through every part of an animal's body and up into every branch of a tree.."