The war between Teutonic Order and the Lithuanian pagans was one of the longest conflicts ever! There was some kind of fighting almost every year from 1283 to 1406, but very few big battles. It was basically a war of attrition, but with both sides getting stronger in the process.
The fighting revolved around raids into enemy territory where both sides pillaged enemy territory back and forth. However these raids had to be well organized and the logistics were very difficult. Campaigning was only possible for a limited time of the year!
This is primarily due to two things: geography and climate. These lands were covered by dense forests, bogs, lakes and rivers. There was a belt of uncleared land between the two enemies as a no man's land. This presented logistical challenges that were very difficult to overcome.
Furthermore campaigning was not possible for most of the year because of weather conditions. In fact, there were only two sets of weather conditions that allowed campaigning at all! And even in this case, sudden weather changes would be disastrous and could trap the army.
One weather condition was a very specific type of winter that was not too cold yet sharp enough to harden the ground and freeze over the rivers. The cold was devastating but a weak winter was even worse as it was impossible to move men and horses unless the ground froze.
The other weather condition for campaigning was hot sun combined with drying winds. This could happen any time from April to October, or not at all, and was unlikely to last for more than a month! When it did, they could combined both land and water transport for raids.
The both sides raided each other to no end while getting continuously strengthened and reinforced by their expanding economies in the hinterland away from the front. This caused this brutal endless war to last so long!
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The early modern era saw the production of massive plan reliefs - scale models of cities, fortifications and surrounding landscape for military usage.
Venetians were the early pioneers of this in 16th century. But the French under Louis XIV took this on another level in 17th century, ordering a production of 140 1:600 scale models in 1688, in an aim to catalogue all the important military fortifications and border fortress-cities in France.
The finest military engineers of the realm such as Vauban took part in this project!
Close attention was paid to all the details.
In 1700, Louis XIV installed the huge collection of plan reliefs in the Louvre. These models could initially only be viewed by elite and were a sort of state secret, as they would provide important knowledge in an event of war.
A large number of such models was built during and after wars, to include newly captured cities and fortresses. Many new plan reliefs were made during the rule of Louis XV in 18th century, some of them to replace the old damage ones.
The construction of plan reliefs shows a new development in European military history. With the advent of siege artillery and bastion fort fortifications, it became hugely important for European states to upgrade their key fortresses and ensure that their strategic cities and towns were fortified enough to endure an enemy assault. Topographic features were studied and sieges were meticulously planned!
It also shows the centralization of European states, which felt the need to have their military capabilities carefully catalogued, helping them to better devise a grand strategy to protect their borders against all threats, studying the possible weak points.
After the fall of Ancien Regime, the production of plan reliefs was revived by Napoleon who ordered the construction of many new ones.
These plan reliefs could also end up in enemy hands, captured as spoils of war. This happened in 1814 when Prussians took 17 models with them to Berlin.
The production of plan reliefs continued into 19th century, but they would eventually be rendered obsolete by 1870 as military technology developed further and artillery became even more powerful, too powerful for the old bastion fort fortifications.
Fortunately, many of the old plan reliefs survived to this day and are stored in the Musée des Plans-Reliefs where they could be observed by curious visitors.
An example of a plan relief kept in Musée des Plans-Reliefs in Paris.
Besançon and surrounding fortifications, made in 1722.
The level of detail is astonishing!
The scale model of Antibes and coast fortifications is quite epic!
Vauban helped to fortify this strategically important port in the French Riviera.
During 16th century sieges, mines and counter-mines were dug.
It was not uncommon that brutal subterranean fighting would take place in the mines!
It's incredible that such mines are still preserved today at St Andrews Castle in Scotland where a siege took place in 1546. 🧵
The well-preserved 16th century siege mines at St Andrews Castle reveal the hard work that was done by both the besiegers and the defenders to dig these tunnels.
During sieges, a lot depended on such subterranean battles.
Such tactics had already been in place for a long time in various medieval and early modern sieges all over Europe.
The besiegers dug tunnels trying to undermine enemy towers or sections of the wall, paving the way for the infantry to storm the city or fortification.
It's wild how Denmark had colonies in India for more than 200 years from 1620 to 1869.
Fort Dansborg, built in 1620, still stands today in the Bay of Bengal.
They had forts, factories, trading posts. But they eventually sold their possessions to British Empire.
The Danish presence in India was of little significance to the major European powers as they presented neither a military nor a mercantile threat so they let them carve out their own niche.
A map of Danish trade routes in the region.
The operation was initially conducted by Danish East India Company.
But the early years of the Danish adventure in India in 1620s were horrible. Almost two-thirds of all the trading vessels dispatched from Denmark were lost.
English explorer John Smith, famous for his involvement in establishing the Jamestown colony in America in 1607.
His coat of arms featured the heads of three Ottoman soldiers whom he beheaded in duels while serving as a mercenary in Transylvania during the Long Turkish War.
John Smith is known today for his role in managing the colony of Jamestown in Virginia, the first permanent English settlement in North America, and his connection with a Powhatan woman called Pocahontas.
But John Smith was also a powerful warrior and mercenary prior to that.
Born in England, he set off to sea in 1596 at age 16 after his father died to become a mercenary, fighting for the French against the Spanish.
He was looking for what he called "brave adventures".
After a truce was made in 1598, he joined a French pirate crew in Mediterranean.
Many Irishmen served the Habsburgs over centuries and distinguished themselves.
Over 100 Irishmen were field marshals, generals, or admirals in the Austrian Army!
Some of the illustrious Irish warriors serving the Habsburg emperors. 🧵
In 1853 there was an assassination attempt on emperor Franz Joseph in Vienna by a Hungarian nationalist.
But the emperor's life was saved by Count Maximilian Karl Lamoral O'Donnell who cut the assassin down with a sabre.
O'Donnell was a descendant of Irish nobility!
Maximilian ancestors -the powerful O'Donnell clan- left Ireland during the Flight of the Earls in 1607, when Irish earls and their followers left Ireland in the aftermath of their defeat against the English Crown in the Nine Years' War in 1603.
Many inns appeared in medieval Europe, offering foods, drinks and a place to socialize, as well as lodging for travelers, helping transportation logistics.
In this thread I will present some of the old medieval inns that survived to this day, from various European countries!🧵
The George Inn. Norton St Philip in Somerset, England 🏴.
Built in 14th century and completed in 15th century, this is a proper medieval inn.
Being an innkeeper was a respected social position. In medieval England, innkeepers were generally wealthy and held influence in towns!
Stiftskeller St. Peter. St Peter's Abbey in Salzburg, Austria 🇦🇹.
Often mentioned as the oldest inn in Central Europe, for it was first mentioned in 803 in a letter to Charlemagne.
It operated as part of the monastery to give food to pilgrims. Now a prestigious restaurant.