Hussite war wagons proved so effective that within 100 years this tactic spread from Bohemia all the way to India!

In 1526 Mughal Emperor Babur employed war wagons to win the First Battle of Panipat.

A short thread on how this style of warfare spread over the world. 🧵

The tactic of "wagenburg" (wagon fort) was adopted in the Hussite Wars (1419-1434) by the Hussites, a religious movement which fought armies of crusader knights from all over Europe.

The use of such war wagons enabled them to withstand the cavalry charges of armored knights.

There was a scene in the movie Lord of the Rings where they light signal fires to warn of an attack.

But this is how the defense system of Habsburg lands actually worked against the Ottoman threat!

A network of bonfires was in place to warn people of incoming Ottoman raids. 🧵

In the Lord of the Rings these are called the Beacon-hills of Gondor.

They are permanently manned stations across the hills where great fireplaces are kept in the state of readiness.

In this manner, people all over the kingdom can be informed of an attack quickly.

In 1927 Benito Mussolini ordered to drain the Lake Nemi south of Rome to recover the wrecks of the Nemi ships, two large pleasure barges built under the reign of the Roman emperor Caligula.

Unfortunately the remains of the ships were destroyed by fire in 1944 during WWII.

It is speculated that Nemi ships were elaborate floating palaces, with mosaic floors, heating and plumbing, baths, galleries and saloons, as well as a large variety of vines and fruit trees, similar to other Caligula's galleys described by Suetonius!

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the Americans made a lot of cutaway images to show how buildings operated.

This was a very interesting time of American history which many see as the beginning of a golden age. 🇺🇸

A thread with a collection of 16 of these cutaway images. 🧵

How a modern hotel operates.

Jan III Sobieski is well known for his victory at Vienna in 1683.

But he had already made his name as a warrior long before that.

On this day 11 November he achieved a great victory against the Ottomans in 1673 at Khotyn.

This is how the Lion of Lechistan was born. 🧵

The Battle of Khotyn happened in the context of the Polish-Ottoman War of 1672-1676.

The said war was started when the Ottomans invaded the lands of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in Ukraine with a 80,000 strong army.

This army was led Sultan Mehmed IV and the Grand Vizier.

It's crazy how Americans bought the myth that during the time of Columbus people thought that the earth was flat, a complete lie popularized by quasi-historian Washington Irving in 1828.

This globe was literally made before Columbus' discovery, and has no America on it. Washington Irving completely invented a fictional dialogue between Columbus and the Council of Salamanca, where the clergy supposedly objected him on the ground that the earth was flat.

His fraudulent book would become the most popular book on Columbus in English-speaking world.

The idea that monarchy and republic are opposed to each other is a modern thing.

The term republic (res publica) was often used to describe medieval kingdoms.

Even by 16th century the Kingdom of France was still called both a republic and a monarchy at the same time! The Kingdom of France defined itself by the phrase of "chose publique" (res publica) from 1350s to 1580s, also using the word respublique, to describe the relation between the King of France and his subject.

The term was then replaced by State (État).

There are many mysterious legends in the Alps.

People from the village of Gurro believe that they are descendants of Scottish warriors who served the French king at the battle of Pavia in 1525!

It is said that after their retreat the Scots were stuck here due to a blizzard. 🧵



The village of Gurro is situated in Italy close to the border of Switzerland.

The villagers are said to speak a curious dialect and have distinct traditions which they believe originate from their alleged Scottish ancestors.

There are many anonymous accounts here on X.

But how did people post anonymously in the past?

16th century Romans developed an interesting tradition of "talking statues", attaching anonymous political commentary on statues.

The Pasquino was the first of such statues.🧵
The Pasquino is an old statue in Rome dating back to Antiquity.

It was one of many random statues in Rome until early 16th century when Cardinal Oliveiro Carafa decorated the statue with Latin epigrams on the occasion of the Feast of Saint Mark.

In the Middle Ages there was no word for orange color.

The Westerners only adopted the word for this color in 16th century from the Sanskrit word naranga through Portuguese merchants!

It eventually became associated with the Protestant cause.🧵

The medievals adopted the idea from the ancients that there were only seven colors: white, yellow, red, green, blue, purple and black.

These were also the seven heraldic tinctures which were eligible to be used on the coats of arms.

Medieval nobles could not use orange color!

From 1475 on, the Venetians recruited the stradioti light cavalry from the Balkans as borderland troops in Friuli to defend against Ottoman raids.

These were known for cutting off the heads of dead or captured enemies and wanted to be paid extra for every head they brought back!

In one instance during the Ottoman raid on the town of Spilimbergo in 1499, the stradioti were able to respond quickly enough and in cooperation with local Friulian militias killed around 100 Ottomans whose heads they brought to a Venetian commander, demanding to be paid!

I keep thinking about this town of Mahdia in Tunisia.

It used to be an important port but brutal wars through history reduced it to a quiet fishing town.

It's a place of significance for Western history as the first successful crusade-like expedition was launched here in 1087. The Mahdia campaign of 1087 was a huge success for Pope Victor III who was able to rally the rival Italian maritime republics of Pisa, Genoa and Amalfi behind the Christian banner to attack the hated Muslim port of Mahdia from where pirate raids were staged by the Zirids.

A donjon was a MASSIVE building that served as the last resort during the defense of the castle.

Basically if everything was lost you retreated into one of these.

This one in Houdan was built in 12th century as part of the castle that is no longer there. It was never conquered. The walls of the donjon have an average thickness of three metres!

This is an absolute unit of a building.

These huge towers in the town of San Gimignano present an imposing sight over the Tuscan countryside!

They are a reminder of a very violent time when warring families inside the town built such towers.

There used to be many more of such towers in this town, over 70 of them. 🧵



The picturesque Tuscan countryside is now a tourist attraction and it is associated with peace and tranquility.

But there was a lot of violence in these lands in the past.

Terrible conflicts broke out in the Middle Ages and Renaissance!

Some European towns are still enclosed by their medieval walls.

The most known examples are Visby, Carcassonne and Monteriggioni!

These towns are from different parts of Europe, located in Sweden, France and Italy respectively.

Which one do you think is the most beautiful?



The town of Montagnana in Veneto is still enclosed by fully functional 14th century walls which had withstood powerful Veronese bombards in 1386.

Absolutely amazing walls!

In the pre-modern world, purple color was seen as a status symbol as it was incredibly expensive to make.

Until this guy named William Henry Perkin accidentally discovered how to make synthetic purple dye in 1856.

Millennia of elite status of purple color gone just like that. The ancients used to make purple color from sea snails found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

It was extremely expensive and time consuming to make and it became symbol of elite and royalty, known as Tyrian purple or imperial purple.

At the Battle of Nájera in 1367, French noble Bertrand du Guesclin tried to warn the Castilians not to attack English longbowmen with light cavalry.

When they didn't listen to him, he replied,

"So be it then. But these are the best soldiers and fiercest warriors in this world." As a result the Castilian light cavalry suffered heavy losses from English arrows, and the Castilian army was eventually outflanked by elite Gascon mercenaries.

Du Guesclin was well aware of the dangers of longbowmen as he faced them before in battles such as Auray in 1364.

The island of Rügen in the Baltic Sea changed hands many times in history.

Today it is a popular tourist destination, but the history of this island is full of brutal wars and invasions!

This was a very violent part of Europe!

Let's take a look at what was going on. 🧵



It is not known when the island of Rügen was first settled but they speculate it was inhabited since the Stone Age.

By 1st century it was populated by the East Germanic tribe of Rugii.

In the 7th century the island was invaded and conquered by the West Slavic Rani.

It's incredible how many inns and hotels in Austria and Germany still bear names such as Zur Post.

This is a remnant of the Imperial postal service created in 16th century by the Taxis family!

The Taxis established a network of inns which provided fresh horses for couriers! 🧵


The growing Habsburg Empire was in need of a better communication system in 16th century.

They commissioned the Taxis family which had historically provided couriers for the Duchy of Milan in Italy to establish a postal service in the Empire and beyond!

The brutal massacre of the Waldensians by the Savoyard ducal troops in 1655 shocked contemporary Protestant Europe.

But this was only the beginning of the long Savoyard-Waldensian Wars which would last until 1690.

A brave warrior emerged who became known as the Lion of Rora!🧵





The idyllic Cottian Alps on the border between France and Italy are now a tourist attraction and a place of peace and tranquility.

But historically, these lands witnessed a lot of unimaginable violence and brutality.

This cannonball in Nice was fired by the Ottomans during their siege of this city in 1543!

This siege was a result of French-Ottoman alliance and one of many joint operations they conducted against Habsburgs and their allies in the Mediterranean. 🧵 The Franco-Ottoman alliance was a result of the growing power of the Habsburgs which had encircled France due to their dynastic possessions in both Spain and Holy Roman Empire.

The alliance was proposed by King Francis I following the disastrous French defeat at Pavia in 1525.