Thread by @LandsknechtPike

How did medieval naval warfare look like?

It was very brutal. In fact, it was the most lethal type of warfare in middle ages!

Let's explore some of the tactics that were used and take a look at some of the most notorious and most bloody medieval naval battles.

THREAD

When people think of pre-modern naval warfare they either think of ships ramming each other in antiquity or firing cannons from broadside in the age of sail.

But medieval naval warfare was very different from both. Rams weren't used and cannons were not effective enough yet.

Medieval naval warfare was dominated by war galleys. They were very maneuverable in shallow waters. The big medieval naval battles took place close to shore where this was often crucial.

War galleys also enabled coastal raiding and amphibious landings.

Medieval naval battles revolved around clearing the deck of enemy ships and boarding them. The ships would come close, shoot arrows and other projectiles at enemy ships, then board them and proceed with vicious melee fighting.

This is where the brutality would commence.

With nowhere to run, casualties could become enormous as there was no chance for crews of boarded ships to retreat and had to fight do death.

Also with medieval attitude towards prisoners, the defeated were mostly massacred and even nobles were often slayed as well.

Needless to say, this meant that such naval battles were very risky.

They were also easily avoided most of the time. Ships could avoid engagement by hiding behind physical barriers such as chains in the ports and unlike in modern age, the enemy had no means to bombard them.

That's why a lot of medieval naval tactics revolved around superior fleets trying to bait the enemy into an open sea battle by trying to hide their numbers or feigning a retreat.

There were some genius examples of that.

At the battle of Meloria in 1284, the Genoese baited the Pisans into battle near the port of their city, Porto Pisano. Genoese captain Oberto Doria placed a squadron of 71 ships in front while hiding an extra squadron of 30 ships commanded by Benedetto Zaccaria behind it.

The Pisans took the bait and engaged with the Genoese, estimating their fleets to be equal in numbers. However in the crucial moment of the battle, the Genoese hidden fleet flanked the Pisans and destroyed them. Around 8000 Pisans were killed and Pisa never recovered from this.

But naval battles were always risky and chaotic. It was hard to command these huge fleets. At Meloria, both fleets had their galleys bound to one another from flank to flank. This was done to keep the fleet together and prevent flanking of individual ships.

However such strategy decreased mobility and could lead to disasters. At Sluys in 1340, the French bound their ships into three lines "like a line of castles". But the English exploited their lack of mobility and managed to pick them apart and boarded French ships one by one.

The English also benefited from their longbowmen outranging the French crossbowmen. The English used modified merchant cogs which had wooden "castles" at the bow and stern from which the longbowmen could fire and clear the decks of enemy ships before men-at-arms boarded them.

By tying their ships together, the French abandoned the key advantage of galleys in mobility.

This is why the otherwise less mobile cogs were able to do such damage to them.

But when used properly, medieval war galleys were very lethal!

At the battle of La Rochelle in 1372, the Castilians with their superior war galleys punished the English.

They would not repeat the French mistake at Sluys. Their war galleys dealt the English a devastating defeat as they could maneuver better in shallow water.

But the biggest advantage one could have in medieval naval warfare was firing projectiles from a higher position than the enemy by having a taller air draught.

Having higher bulwarks, forecastles and sterncastle from which your troops could fire was a crucial advantage.

The great medieval admiral in Aragonese service Roger di Lauria understood this and modified his galleys accordingly. He suggested the Aragonese build galleys with significant modifications, increasing them in size from the standard Mediterranean size of 104-108 oars to 112-118.

This made the ships slower and heavier, but the trade off was that they had higher bulwarks, forecastles and sterncastles, giving more protection to his men. His favorite tactic was to advance in line and had his men refrain from firing missiles until very close to the enemy.

Di Lauria used these tactics at the battle of Malta in 1283. He only allowed his crossbowmen to fire while the rest of the crew was ordered to stay in cover until very close to enemy.

The higher position and bulwarks also made it impossible for French to board Aragonese ships.

Di Lauria's modified war galleys enabled him to fire at French ships from close range without being in danger to be boarded.

His crossbowmen and other missile units could also do more damage as they fired from a higher, better position and had more protection.

Roger di Lauria won many naval battles in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282-1302), the war that was decided on sea where he had advantage over his Angevin French rivals. He used feigned retreats and similar deceptions to bait the French into naval battles.

Arrows, javelins and crossbow bolts were not the only missiles used in medieval naval battles. Catapults and ballistae were also used and later on bombards.

At La Rochelle, Castilians sprayed oil on enemy decks and ignited it with flaming arrows. Many English burned alive.

Once the missile exchange stopped, the enemy ships had to be boarded. Boarding platforms were used and troops entered enemy ships to engage in vicious melees. Mobility of troops was important and armor was less of an advantage than on land.

Sometimes, soap was thrown at enemy ships to make the decks slippery during melees. This was done to disrupt armored enemy knights. Di Lauria's men loved to do that because their crews were lightly armored troops including the famed almogavars, facing the French knights.

And this is where the brutal aspect took place. With nowhere to run, these melees were fought bitterly until the end. Mercy was rarely shown to defeated. It seems that naval warfare brought out the worst out of men who fought in it. Many massacres of prisoners occurred!

French losses at Sluys are estimated at astonishing 16000-20000, many of them dying from drowning. The prisoners were all massacred.

The English joked that if the fish in Sluys harbor could speak, it would be in French, from the feast of French bodies they had dined on.

Roger di Lauria is perhaps the best example of how ruthless naval battles were even for the standards of the time.

He was a brilliant commander, probably the best medieval admiral.

But he was also a brutal and violent man who mercilessly killed prisoners.

After the battle of Cape Orlando in 1299, Roger di Lauria had the prisoners brutally executed "by either a sword in the chest, by being clubbed to death with an iron rod, or were beheaded." Those included the nobles of Messina who were responsible for the death of his nephew.

But a more notorious incident happened earlier, after the battle of Les Formigues in 1285 where di Lauria defeated the French.

There di Lauria spared the nobles, but remaining 260 prisoners had their eyes gouged out and were sent to the King of France bound together by a rope.

Roger di Lauria would chose the same punishment after the battle of Ponza in 1300. There the Sicilian fleet with Genoese crossbowmen mercenaries inflicted huge casualties on his troops. He ordered that the Genoese who were captured had their eyes gouged out and hands cut off.

Di Lauria was a cruel man, no doubt hardened by the experiences of so many naval battles, which were the most brutal type of medieval warfare.

But such massacres and mistreatment of prisoners happened after many other naval battles. No mercy was shown nor expected.

After the naval battle of Arnemuiden in 1338, the victorious French massacred the English prisoners after they had surrendered.

The French admirals Hugues Quiéret and Nicolas Béhuchet who ordered the massacre were later captured themselves two years later at Sluys and executed.

At Sluys no prisoners were taken and the English executed all the French they could.

Many French drowned trying to escape.

But even those who made it to shore were not lucky. They were clubbed to death by local Flemish spectators of the battle!

Battle of Giglio in 1241 was another brutal naval encounter. The Imperial fleet led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II who was in conflict with Pope defeated the Genoese fleet transporting a delegation of high-ranking prelates. 2000 Genoese were killed and also some priests.

Naval battles also happened during the crusades in Levant. In 1123 Venetians destroyed the Muslim Fatimid fleet off Ascalon. William of Tyre reports, "the victors were completely covered with the blood of the slain."

Naval dominance of Italian republics helped crusaders greatly.

William of Tyre: "A fierce battle commenced, both sides fought with great bitterness, and there were so many killed, that those who were there, most emphatically assure you as unlikely as it may sound, that the victors waded in the enemy's blood."

"... and the surrounding sea was dyed red from the blood that flowed down from the ships, up to a radius of two thousand steps."

These words from ancient chronicles remind us of how brutal the naval battles were even for the standards of their time.

Naval warfare also influenced military developments on land. The Italian maritime republics like Genoa became famous for their crossbowmen as they had to maintain a certain number of skilled crossbowmen on their galleys. They would serve as mercenaries all over Europe.

Italian sailors and crossbowmen would also play the crucial role in victories of Richard the Lionheart during the crusades at Arsuf in 1191 and Jaffa in 1192.

The crusader states wouldn't have lasted that long without naval support from Italian maritime republics to begin with.

Genoese mariners also served as mercenaries for France.

At Sluys, the experience commander of Genoese mercenary contingent Pietro Barbavera refused to tie together his ships and had success against English. He warned French of the error of their tactics.

But they didn't listen.

The appearance of gunpowder weapons did not drastically change medieval naval warfare.

The English had already placed three bombards on their big cog Cristopher in 1338 when it was captured by French at the battle of Arnemuiden. But these did not really have a big effect.

We also read about bombards used at the battle of Barcelona 1359 where an Aragonese ship damaged a big Castilian ship with bombards.

But boarding enemy ships and firing missiles from close range would continue to be the crucial aspect of battles for entire middle ages.

Even later at the battle of Lepanto in 1571 naval warfare still depended on embarking enemy ships and fighting in melees. The galleys usually had only one chance to fire the cannons. "Fire the guns so close to the enemy that their blood spurts over you," was said.

But there were also many extraordinary ways navy was used for war in the middle ages. For example during the siege of Acre in 1291 the Pisans used their boats to bombard the Mamluk camp with catapults from the sea, a very difficult task in which Pisan sailors were very skilled.

Skills and experience were crucial at sea both for battles and trade and Italian maritime republics were very meritocratic.

The manuscript of Michael of Rhodes, a common oarsman who rose through ranks, reveals just how skilled mariners like him were.

https://twitter.com/LandsknechtPike/status/1559148845619101698

Fun fact to end thread:

After the disaster at Sluys no one dared to report the defeat to French king until a jester did it as riddle.

"Why are the English knights more cowardly than the French?"

"Because they did not jump in their armor into the sea, like our brave Frenchmen."