Let's take a step back and introduce an analogy: imagine a home with a thermostat and a radiator.
When the temperature drops below a set-point, the THERMOSTAT turns the RADIATOR on, increasing the temperature. When the desired temperature is reached it turns off.
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This is an example of a controlled system: a CONTROLLER (the thermostat) directs a PLANT (the radiator) to regulate a process variable (the temperature).
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This closed loop system carefully regulates the temperature in our homes.
We'll call this HOMEostasis...! 😂
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It also turns out this simple Control Theory Model is also a pretty good analogy of how our respiratory system functions:
A CONTROLLER (the pons/medulla) activates a PLANT (the respiratory muscles) in response to a PROCESS VARIABLE (PaCO2).
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Just like our home thermostat regulates temperature, our pons/medulla activates our respiratory muscles using a closed loop controlled system.
Normally, this adjusts VE to maintain homeostasis, tightly controlling our PaCO2, PaO2 & pH.
Full disclosure: As you can see, I've simplified the model & omitted the math (this is a #tweetorial not a textbook!).
If I've piqued your interest in the topic I recommend reading this paper (don't worry you won't have to do any Laplace transforms!) jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jpfsm/… 12/
Now that we understand how the system works, we're ready to understand how it's perturbed in CHF.
Using our analogy:
1️⃣weaker radiator
2️⃣radiator is farther from the thermostat
These result in delayed response to temperature shifts & thus big swings in room temperature. 13/
Why is the radiator smaller?
Because of low cardiac output, less blood is delivered to the lungs. This increases physiologic DEAD SPACE & alters the relationship between VE and PaCO2.
Due to low cardiac output, it takes longer for blood to circulate from lungs to chemoreceptors. This means that there is a DELAY (circulation time) between plant output and sensor.
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How much longer is circulation time in CHF?
In 1933, researchers injected volunteers in the leg with a tracer compound and measured how many seconds until the volunteers could taste it.
🚨 Clinical aside: This fact can save a life!
Increased circulating time really matters when you intubate people with CHF:
-Expect your sedation & paralytics to take longer to work!
-There will be a longer delay in SpO2 recovery once the tube is in!
Be patient!
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Adding a delay between plant output & controller input can destabilize a controlled system.
For the mathematically inclined, adding a time delay (τ) has an *exponential* effect on the Lapacian. This is why a small delay (just 13 seconds) can profoundly destabilize things! 18/
Altered plant gain & prolonged circulating time can make feedback loops overcorrect; VE is constantly overshooting (hyperventilation) or undershooting (apnea).
Each correction leads to another cycle of larger corrections, until large oscillations develop: Cheyne-Stokes! 19/
Let's summarize:
- the respiratory "plant" is triggered by the medulla/pons "controller"
- people with CHF have more dead space (a smaller plant) & delay in sensing CO2; this causes Periodic instability in PaCO2 and respirations!
- think of the thermostat overcorrecting!
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But why did an inotrope "fix" the Cheyne-Stokes respirations?
- the inotrope increased the SV & CI
- this reduced physiologic dead space, making the lungs work better (improved plant gain!)
- this also reduced circulating time (eliminating the instability from the delay!)
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If you like my thermostat analogy, imagine that adding an inotrope is like putting a fan in that big room!
The fan improves the efficiency of the radiator & reduces the delay in sensing. This "fixes" the problem of big swings in temperature, restoring HOMEostasis!
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Let's go over the incorrect answers.
- Opioids exacerbate Cheyne-Stokes (CSR)
- Oxygen can help CSR but wouldn't have doubled the SV or CO!
- This was CSR not Kussmaul. If it was Kussmaul due to DKA, insulin would have helped.
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To summarize everything, we learned:
- how control theory helps us understand control of respiration (thermostat analogy)
- why people with CHF develop Cheyne-Stokes: more dead space & prolonged circulatory time (big room, small radiator)
- how inotropes correct CSR (add a fan)
It occurs to me that a slightly better analogy would be a thermostat turning on central AC:
Rising temp (analogous to PaCO2) leads to AC plant activation (analogous to ventilation), which normalizes the temp!
🥶But frankly it’s way too cold out to think about AC!
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Did he have a head CT? What did it show?
Did he have stitches? Tetanus shot?
The NYT ran nonstop stories about Biden’s health after the debate but can’t be bothered to report on the health of someone who was literally shot in the head?
To the people in the replies who say it’s impossible because of “HIPPA” 1. I assume you mean HIPAA 2. A normal presidential candidate would allow his doctors to release the info. This is exactly what happened when Reagan survived an assassination attempt. washingtonpost.com/obituaries/202…
My advice to journalists is to lookup tangential gunshot wounds (TGSW).
Ask questions like:
- what imaging has he had?
- what cognitive assessments?
- has he seen a neurosurgeon or neurologist?
- he’s previously had symptoms like slurred speech, abnormal gait - are these worse?
If you intubate you need to read the #PREOXI trial!
-n=1301 people requiring intubation in ED/ ICU were randomized to preoxygenation with oxygen mask vs non-invasive ventilation (NIV)
-NIV HALVED the risk of hypoxemia: 9 vs 18%
-NIV reduced mortality: 0.2% vs 1.1%
#CCR24
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Hypoxemia (SpO2 <85%) occurs in 10-20% of ED & ICU intubations.
1-2% of intubations performed in ED/ICU result in cardiac arrest!
This is an exceptionally dangerous procedure and preoxygenation is essential to keep patients safe.
But what’s the *BEST* way to preoxygenate? 2/
Most people use a non-rebreather oxygen mask, but because of its loose fit it often delivers much less than 100% FiO2.
NIV (“BiPAP”) delivers a higher FiO2 because of its tight fit. It also delivers PEEP & achieves a higher mean airway pressure which is theoretically helpful! 3/
Results from #PROTECTION presented #CCR24 & published @NEJM.
- DB RCT of amino acid infusion vs placebo in n=3511 people undergoing cardiac surgery w/ bypass.
- Reduced incidence of AKI (26.9% vs 31.7% NNT=20) & need for RRT (1.4% vs 1.9% NNT=200)
Potential game changer!
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I work in a busy CVICU & I often see AKI following cardiac surgery.
Despite risk stratification & hemodynamic optimization, AKI remains one of the most common complications after cardiac surgery with bypass.
Even a modest reduction in AKI/CRRT would be great for my patients. 2/
During cardiac surgery w/ bypass, renal blood flow (RBF) is reduced dramatically. This causes injury, especially in susceptible individuals.
But what if we could use physiology to protect the kidneys?
Renal blood vessels dilate after a high protein meal increasing RBF & GFR! 3/
77 yo with respiratory distress, RR 30, SpO2 80% on non-rebreather at 15 lpm
CXR & TTE are unrevealing
pH 7.58 / PaCO2 24 / PaO2 >500 / HCO3 22
MetHb 0% CarboxyHb 0%
The ABG looks like this:
The answer is sulfhemoglobinemia.
Sulfhemoglobinemia is a *permanently* modified hemoglobin associated with exposure to TMP/SMX, dapsone, phenazopyridine, & other amino & nitro compounds.
It has an altered oxy-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
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Sulfhemoglobinemia is easily confused with methemoglobinemia. Both have very dark colored blood & present with cyanosis. Diagnosis typically requires a specialized lab.
Spoiler: you may have heard that SulfHb is green. It isn’t really. You’re thinking of Vulcans’ blood.