Let's take a step back and introduce an analogy: imagine a home with a thermostat and a radiator.
When the temperature drops below a set-point, the THERMOSTAT turns the RADIATOR on, increasing the temperature. When the desired temperature is reached it turns off.
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This is an example of a controlled system: a CONTROLLER (the thermostat) directs a PLANT (the radiator) to regulate a process variable (the temperature).
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This closed loop system carefully regulates the temperature in our homes.
We'll call this HOMEostasis...! 😂
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It also turns out this simple Control Theory Model is also a pretty good analogy of how our respiratory system functions:
A CONTROLLER (the pons/medulla) activates a PLANT (the respiratory muscles) in response to a PROCESS VARIABLE (PaCO2).
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Just like our home thermostat regulates temperature, our pons/medulla activates our respiratory muscles using a closed loop controlled system.
Normally, this adjusts VE to maintain homeostasis, tightly controlling our PaCO2, PaO2 & pH.
Full disclosure: As you can see, I've simplified the model & omitted the math (this is a #tweetorial not a textbook!).
If I've piqued your interest in the topic I recommend reading this paper (don't worry you won't have to do any Laplace transforms!) jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jpfsm/… 12/
Now that we understand how the system works, we're ready to understand how it's perturbed in CHF.
Using our analogy:
1️⃣weaker radiator
2️⃣radiator is farther from the thermostat
These result in delayed response to temperature shifts & thus big swings in room temperature. 13/
Why is the radiator smaller?
Because of low cardiac output, less blood is delivered to the lungs. This increases physiologic DEAD SPACE & alters the relationship between VE and PaCO2.
Due to low cardiac output, it takes longer for blood to circulate from lungs to chemoreceptors. This means that there is a DELAY (circulation time) between plant output and sensor.
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How much longer is circulation time in CHF?
In 1933, researchers injected volunteers in the leg with a tracer compound and measured how many seconds until the volunteers could taste it.
🚨 Clinical aside: This fact can save a life!
Increased circulating time really matters when you intubate people with CHF:
-Expect your sedation & paralytics to take longer to work!
-There will be a longer delay in SpO2 recovery once the tube is in!
Be patient!
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Adding a delay between plant output & controller input can destabilize a controlled system.
For the mathematically inclined, adding a time delay (τ) has an *exponential* effect on the Lapacian. This is why a small delay (just 13 seconds) can profoundly destabilize things! 18/
Altered plant gain & prolonged circulating time can make feedback loops overcorrect; VE is constantly overshooting (hyperventilation) or undershooting (apnea).
Each correction leads to another cycle of larger corrections, until large oscillations develop: Cheyne-Stokes! 19/
Let's summarize:
- the respiratory "plant" is triggered by the medulla/pons "controller"
- people with CHF have more dead space (a smaller plant) & delay in sensing CO2; this causes Periodic instability in PaCO2 and respirations!
- think of the thermostat overcorrecting!
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But why did an inotrope "fix" the Cheyne-Stokes respirations?
- the inotrope increased the SV & CI
- this reduced physiologic dead space, making the lungs work better (improved plant gain!)
- this also reduced circulating time (eliminating the instability from the delay!)
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If you like my thermostat analogy, imagine that adding an inotrope is like putting a fan in that big room!
The fan improves the efficiency of the radiator & reduces the delay in sensing. This "fixes" the problem of big swings in temperature, restoring HOMEostasis!
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Let's go over the incorrect answers.
- Opioids exacerbate Cheyne-Stokes (CSR)
- Oxygen can help CSR but wouldn't have doubled the SV or CO!
- This was CSR not Kussmaul. If it was Kussmaul due to DKA, insulin would have helped.
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To summarize everything, we learned:
- how control theory helps us understand control of respiration (thermostat analogy)
- why people with CHF develop Cheyne-Stokes: more dead space & prolonged circulatory time (big room, small radiator)
- how inotropes correct CSR (add a fan)
It occurs to me that a slightly better analogy would be a thermostat turning on central AC:
Rising temp (analogous to PaCO2) leads to AC plant activation (analogous to ventilation), which normalizes the temp!
🥶But frankly it’s way too cold out to think about AC!
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77 yo with respiratory distress, RR 30, SpO2 80% on non-rebreather at 15 lpm
CXR & TTE are unrevealing
pH 7.58 / PaCO2 24 / PaO2 >500 / HCO3 22
MetHb 0% CarboxyHb 0%
The ABG looks like this:
The answer is sulfhemoglobinemia.
Sulfhemoglobinemia is a *permanently* modified hemoglobin associated with exposure to TMP/SMX, dapsone, phenazopyridine, & other amino & nitro compounds.
It has an altered oxy-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
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Sulfhemoglobinemia is easily confused with methemoglobinemia. Both have very dark colored blood & present with cyanosis. Diagnosis typically requires a specialized lab.
Spoiler: you may have heard that SulfHb is green. It isn’t really. You’re thinking of Vulcans’ blood.
Damn. Under Trump the White House Medical Unit was a pill-mill. Thousands of ambien & provigil per month.
Worse, for a clinic that doesn’t typically do procedures w/ moderate sedation they sure are they ordering prodigious quantities of morphine, fentanyl, versed, & ketamine…?
Honestly, this reminds me of Norman Ohler’s Blitzed.
The AG report was largely concerned with the enormous cost of prescribing these non-genetic meds.
It’s worth pointing out that dispensing prescription meds without documentation is malpractice. In the case of controlled substances it’s also likely a crime.
The long awaited #COVIDOUT RCT is now in @TheLancet:
- high risk adults randomized to either metformin (MET), ivermectin (IVM), fluvoxamine (FLV) or placebo.
- MET reduced the risk of long COVID (6.3% vs 10.4%; NNT = 24)
- no benefit with IVM or FLV