Let's take a step back and introduce an analogy: imagine a home with a thermostat and a radiator.
When the temperature drops below a set-point, the THERMOSTAT turns the RADIATOR on, increasing the temperature. When the desired temperature is reached it turns off.
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This is an example of a controlled system: a CONTROLLER (the thermostat) directs a PLANT (the radiator) to regulate a process variable (the temperature).
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This closed loop system carefully regulates the temperature in our homes.
We'll call this HOMEostasis...! 😂
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It also turns out this simple Control Theory Model is also a pretty good analogy of how our respiratory system functions:
A CONTROLLER (the pons/medulla) activates a PLANT (the respiratory muscles) in response to a PROCESS VARIABLE (PaCO2).
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Just like our home thermostat regulates temperature, our pons/medulla activates our respiratory muscles using a closed loop controlled system.
Normally, this adjusts VE to maintain homeostasis, tightly controlling our PaCO2, PaO2 & pH.
Full disclosure: As you can see, I've simplified the model & omitted the math (this is a #tweetorial not a textbook!).
If I've piqued your interest in the topic I recommend reading this paper (don't worry you won't have to do any Laplace transforms!) jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jpfsm/… 12/
Now that we understand how the system works, we're ready to understand how it's perturbed in CHF.
Using our analogy:
1️⃣weaker radiator
2️⃣radiator is farther from the thermostat
These result in delayed response to temperature shifts & thus big swings in room temperature. 13/
Why is the radiator smaller?
Because of low cardiac output, less blood is delivered to the lungs. This increases physiologic DEAD SPACE & alters the relationship between VE and PaCO2.
Due to low cardiac output, it takes longer for blood to circulate from lungs to chemoreceptors. This means that there is a DELAY (circulation time) between plant output and sensor.
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How much longer is circulation time in CHF?
In 1933, researchers injected volunteers in the leg with a tracer compound and measured how many seconds until the volunteers could taste it.
🚨 Clinical aside: This fact can save a life!
Increased circulating time really matters when you intubate people with CHF:
-Expect your sedation & paralytics to take longer to work!
-There will be a longer delay in SpO2 recovery once the tube is in!
Be patient!
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Adding a delay between plant output & controller input can destabilize a controlled system.
For the mathematically inclined, adding a time delay (τ) has an *exponential* effect on the Lapacian. This is why a small delay (just 13 seconds) can profoundly destabilize things! 18/
Altered plant gain & prolonged circulating time can make feedback loops overcorrect; VE is constantly overshooting (hyperventilation) or undershooting (apnea).
Each correction leads to another cycle of larger corrections, until large oscillations develop: Cheyne-Stokes! 19/
Let's summarize:
- the respiratory "plant" is triggered by the medulla/pons "controller"
- people with CHF have more dead space (a smaller plant) & delay in sensing CO2; this causes Periodic instability in PaCO2 and respirations!
- think of the thermostat overcorrecting!
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But why did an inotrope "fix" the Cheyne-Stokes respirations?
- the inotrope increased the SV & CI
- this reduced physiologic dead space, making the lungs work better (improved plant gain!)
- this also reduced circulating time (eliminating the instability from the delay!)
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If you like my thermostat analogy, imagine that adding an inotrope is like putting a fan in that big room!
The fan improves the efficiency of the radiator & reduces the delay in sensing. This "fixes" the problem of big swings in temperature, restoring HOMEostasis!
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Let's go over the incorrect answers.
- Opioids exacerbate Cheyne-Stokes (CSR)
- Oxygen can help CSR but wouldn't have doubled the SV or CO!
- This was CSR not Kussmaul. If it was Kussmaul due to DKA, insulin would have helped.
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To summarize everything, we learned:
- how control theory helps us understand control of respiration (thermostat analogy)
- why people with CHF develop Cheyne-Stokes: more dead space & prolonged circulatory time (big room, small radiator)
- how inotropes correct CSR (add a fan)
It occurs to me that a slightly better analogy would be a thermostat turning on central AC:
Rising temp (analogous to PaCO2) leads to AC plant activation (analogous to ventilation), which normalizes the temp!
🥶But frankly it’s way too cold out to think about AC!
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Well designed RCT shows patients randomized to an exercise program had substantially improved survival after adjuvant chemotherapy for colon cancer.
- 5 yr disease-free survival 80.3% vs
73.9% (HR 0.72)
- 8 yr overall survival 90.3% vs 83.2% (HR 0.63)
This is groundbreaking! 1/
Some deets on the CHALLENGE trial
A 55 center trial done over 15 years (2009-2024) that randomized n=889 people with resected colon cancer after adjuvant chemotherapy to either:
- participate in a structured exercise program
- or to receive health-education materials alone
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The intervention was pretty comprehensive:
Personal activity consultant (PACs) - essentially trainers - got to know the participant 1:1, introduced them to the gym and came up with personalized activity goals
Regular every 2 week sessions helped participants reach the goals
Tragic news today about former president Biden's prostate cancer diagnosis. I wish him well.
As someone who follows presidential health reporting, I noticed something odd: unlike his predecessors, Biden's physician's never reported PSA.
How to interpret this absence? A🧵 1/
There are two possibilities:
1️⃣ Biden’s PSA was never checked
2️⃣ Biden’s PSA was checked but it wasn't reported
Strictly speaking, not checking PSA could be a medically correct option. Whether or not to test PSA is a complex question and is not the topic of this thread.
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Like many VIPs, presidents tend to have excessive testing that is not always strictly evidence-based.
For example, Bush 43 had an exercise treadmill test and a TB test for no apparent reason.
In honor of #MayThe4thBeWithYou let's consider the most difficult airways in the Star Wars universe:
1. Darth Vader
Species: human
Vader presents several challenges: Vent dependent at baseline, airway burns from Mustafar, limited neck mobility.
Discuss GOC before saving him
2. Fodesinbeed Annodue
Species: Trog
All airways require teamwork, but intubating Fodesinbeed Annodue's two heads really will require two operators.
Consider double simultaneous awake fiberoptic intubation
Be sure to consent both heads.
You will never find a more wretched hive of scum & challenging airways than Mos Eisley (except maybe at Jabba's)
3.Greedo
Species: Rodian
Micrognathia, posterior airway, no nasal intubation, green skin so no pulse ox
Approach: VL + bronchoscope. Intubate quickly (shoot first)
Every year, there is a predictable spike in fatal car accidents, medical errors, & heart attacks.
It’s estimated that there are thousands of excess deaths, a 1% increase in energy consumption, & billions of dollars in lost GDP.
The cause? Daylight savings transitions.
🧵
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Earth's axis of rotation and orbital axis are not precisely aligned. The 23.5 degree difference - 'axis tilt' - gives us our seasons and a noticeable difference in day length over the course of the year.
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For millennia this seasonal variation was an accepted fact of life.
In 1895, George Hudson, a New Zealand entomologist, was annoyed that less afternoon light meant less time for bug collecting.
He realized that clocks could be adjusted seasonally to align with daylight.
Unlike other Trump moves, this is arguably GOOD news for researchers!
If the NIH budget is unchanged (a big if), this allocates more money to researchers; if you go from an indirect of 75% to 15% it means you can fund 3 grants instead of 2.
Between 1947 and 1965, indirect rates ranged from 8% to 25% of total direct costs. In 1965, Congress removed most caps. Since then indirects have steadily risen.
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A lot of indirects go to thing like depreciation of facilities not paying salaries of support staff.
This accounting can be a little misleading.
If donors build a new $400m building, the institution can depreciate it & “lose” $20m/year over 20 years. Indirects pay this.
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