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Edith Mirante Profile picture
@EdithMirante
Apr 25 • 24 tweets • 10 min read Twitter logo Read on Twitter
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1. This History Thread is about relations of Burma (Myanmar) with Bangladesh & Pakistan. Burma’s western neighbor Bangladesh was part of Pakistan from 1947-1971. In a region of turmoil, Bangladesh/Myanmar river border has been a lifeline for refugees. #WhatsHappeningInMyanmar ImageImageImageImage
2. Arakan, now Rakhine State of Myanmar (Burma) was inhabited by Mro & Chakma people, later Rakhines & Rohingyas. Coastal & valley trading cities rose in Arakan from 3rd-4th C. By 14th C. Arakan a “vassal state” of Bengal Sultanate which spread out from Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta. Image
3. 1406 Burmese (Ava) invaded Arakan’s Lemro cities, whose ruler Min Saw Mon fled to Bengal Sultanate. 1430 Bengal’s Sultan Nasir-ud-din Shah helped Min Saw Mon retake Arakan from Ava. 1512–16 Bengal Sultanate conquered Kingdom of Mrauk U (Arakan.) Image
4. 16th C. Arakan navy challenged Mughal Bengal to control Chittagong port. Arakan burned Bengal’s Dhaka city. With Portuguese freebooters Arakan raided Bengal for slaves, sold many to Dutch East India Co. In 1666 Bengal, w. Dutch & Portuguese naval assistance, retook Chittagong. Image
5. When Burmese conquered Arakan 1784-5, hundreds of thousands fled Arakan to Bengal (under British control from late 18th C.) Arakan/Bengal border clashes in 1824 sparked 1st Anglo-Burmese War. British defeated Burmese in Arakan, 1826 treaty ceded Arakan to British. Image
6. When WW2 Japanese invaders took Arakan, Chittagong (Bengal, India) was staging area of Allies 1st, 2nd & 3rd Arakan campaigns aimed at retaking Burma. Tens of thousands civilians, mainly Rohingyas, fled WW2 Japanese invasion & interethnic violence to British-controlled Bengal. Image
7. Independent after WW2, Burma retained all of Arakan, which had a “new” neighbor as India was partitioned with Pakistan created from predominantly Muslim regions, including East Bengal (which became East Pakistan 1955.) Burma & Pakistan diplomatic relations established in 1947. Image
8. After centuries of population migrations & borderline drawn by British Colonial govt, related ethnic groups lived on both sides of East Bengal - Burma border, including Rakhine/Marma, Chakma/Daingnet/Thet, Khami/Khumi & Mro, as well as Rohingyas who had fled strife in Arakan. Image
9. Some Rohingya leaders lobbied unsuccessfully to have northern Arakan join East Bengal (Pakistan.) Rohingyas were politically marginalized in 1950s Burma & small Mujahid rebellion broke out. Pakistan govt. denied the Mujahid support & arrested their leader in 1954. Image
10. In 1971 Bangladesh (East Pakistan) fought a war to gain independence from Pakistan, succeeding after India intervened against Pakistan. Burma backed Pakistan in the conflict but recognized new nation Bangladesh in 1972. Burma dictator Gen. Ne Win visited Bangladesh ‘74. Image
11. Gen. Ne Win’s Burma dictatorship oppressed many ethnic groups incl. Rakhines & Rohingyas of Arakan (Rakhine St.) 1977-8 human rights violations of Ne Win regime’s Operation Nagamin caused est. 200,000+ Rohingyas to flee to Bangladesh, which negotiated (& forced) their return. Image
12. When Myanmar (Burma) junta increased troops in N. Rakhine St. 1991-92, est. 250,000 Rohingyas fled to Bangladesh camps. Bangladesh used beatings, denial of food to coerce returns. 10,000 Rohingyas entered Bangladesh 1996 fleeing forced labor, troop buildup in N. Rakhine St. Image
13. Thousands of Rohingyas who fled Burma regime attacks in 1970s-90s made their way to slums of Karachi, Pakistan where they found work in fishing industry, chronically impoverished. thenational.ae/world/asia/roh…
14. During 1970s-90s some small armed groups from Burma (Myanmar) Rakhine St. including Rohingya factions as well as predominantly Rakhine Communist groups & All Burma Students' Democratic Front used border regions of Bangladesh for safe houses or training camps. Image
15. 1980s-90s small armed group Rohingya Solidarity Organization reportedly had some training/support from Pakistan-based “extremist pan-Islamic groups.” Some Rohingyas, mostly from Pakistan refugee population, trained in Pakistan to fight for Taliban in Afghanistan 1990s-2001. Image
16. Bangladesh/Myanmar diplomatic crisis occurred in Dec. 1991 when Myanmar SLORC regime forces of "Operation Pyi Thaya" seeking Rohingya Solidarity Organization camps crossed border & attacked a Bangladesh Rifles border security post in Bandarban, inflicting multiple casualties. Image
17. When Rohingyas fled violence in 2012 Bangladesh turned away river boats, barred foreign aid groups from camps. But foreign aid was sought when Rohingyas fled genocidal attacks in 2016 (est. 65,000 to Bangladesh) & 2017 (est. 740,000+ to Bangladesh.) indianexpress.com/article/world/…
18. Bangladesh camps for Rohingyas: fenced-in fire hazards lacking education & employment + a “prison island.” Hopelessness & violence lead to dangerous boat escape attempts. Alternatives: livable “refugee cities” model or major 3rd country resettlement. archive.dhakatribune.com/opinion/op-ed/…
19. 2022-23 Bangladesh importing rice from Myanmar in trade facilitated by Myanmar coup regime. China has been promoting meetings between Bangladesh government & Myanmar coup regime to promote Rohingya repatriation despite unsafe conditions for return. irrawaddy.com/news/burma/chi…
20. Bangladesh/Myanmar border has long been smuggling route (rice, drugs etc.) Since 2017 a few thousand refugees stranded in contested border “no man’s land” particularly vulnerable to armed groups ARSA, new RSO, border forces, criminal activities, fire. forsea.co/trouble-in-no-…
21. Myanmar military have violated Bangladesh border & airspace, including during conflict w. Arakan Army. Multiple violations of Bangladesh border/airspace by Myanmar coup airforce & artillery Aug.-Sept. 2022, Bangladesh responded w. diplomatic protests. irrawaddy.com/news/burma/mya…
22. Pakistanis demonstrated against Myanmar military/govt 2017 genocidal attacks on Rohingyas. Pakistan govt. condemned the attacks but didn’t sanction Myanmar or grant rights like National Identity Cards to Pakistan’s resident Rohingya refugee population. hrw.org/news/2017/09/1…
23. Myanmar made deal for Pakistan/China JF-17 planes (malfunctioning) from Pakistan in 2016. After Feb. 2021 Myanmar coup, reported military visits betw. Pakistan & Myanmar coup regime to discuss Pakistan arms sales, w. implications of China involvement. irrawaddy.com/news/burma/mya…
24/24. Thanks @paiselface for question that inspired this thread. My new 3 part essay “A Death in Arakan” is at @MekongReview. My previous Burma History Threads & reports including new Chin State report are at: projectmaje.org Image

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More from @EdithMirante

Edith Mirante Profile picture
Nov 10, 2022
1. This History Thread is about relations between Burma (Myanmar) and the continent of Africa. Although far apart geographically there have been interactions in trade, diplomacy & affinities in the Colonial + post-Colonial experience. Background on #WhatsHappeningInMyanmar ImageImageImageImage
2. Ancient Indian Ocean trade routes connected Southeast Asia and East Africa. Seafaring lands like Arakan, Pegu, Tavoy in what would become Burma could exchange goods with great African ports like Kilwa Kisiwani & Songo Mnara. Image
3. Britain conquered Burma late 18th Century. Britain colonized lands across Africa during 18th-19th Centuries. Most resource trade was between the colonized lands & Britain but some commodities were traded colony to colony, such as Burmese teak for the carved doors of Zanzibar. ImageImage
Read 15 tweets
Edith Mirante Profile picture
Aug 16, 2022
1. This History Thread is about the railways of Burma (Myanmar) where railway lines have been important but often neglected & become flashpoints in times of conflict. Links to short videos with posts 3, 5, 13, 14, 18. 🚂
#WhatsHappeningInBurma
2. Irrawaddy Valley State Railway Co.’s meter-gauge Rangoon-Prome line completed 1877 during British colonial control of Lower Burma. Railway reached Mandalay 1889 & lines added to Shwebo 1891, Katha 1895, Myitkyina 1898. 3 private companies taken over by Burma Railway Co., 1896.
3. Workers from India were employed for most railway construction in Burma under British rule. An American company built spectacular Gokteik viaduct 1899-1901, then world’s longest (690 m) railway trestle, 102 m high in Shan St. for Mandalay-Lashio line.
Read 22 tweets
Edith Mirante Profile picture
May 29, 2022
1. This History Thread is about Britain’s relations with Burma (Myanmar.) A fraught legacy with centuries of trade, conflict, colonization, Independence, more trade, sanctions. #WhatsHappeningInMyanmar
2. Lands that would become Burma were of interest to British East India Company due to rivalry w. Portuguese, Dutch, French. Ralph Fitch visited 1587 for BEIC. 17th-18th C. British trade, teak shipbuilding, diplomatic relations w. Ava. Conflict on Arakan border w. British Bengal.
3. As Ava expanded west (Arakan, toward Assam, Manipur) 1st Anglo-Burmese War 1824-26. British military moved into Assam, Arakan & Irrawaddy River area but ravaged by diseases. Ava’s Gen. Maha Bandula killed. Treaty: British kept Arakan, Tenasserim + Assam, Manipur buffer zone.
Read 25 tweets
Edith Mirante Profile picture
Mar 8, 2022
1. This History Thread is a backgrounder on how Feb. 1, 2021 Russia-backed coup in Myanmar (Burma) relates to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine & response. Military & diplomatic support from Russia have enabled the Myanmar coup regime. 🌿#WhatsHappeningInMyanmar #IStandWithUkraine 🇺🇦
2. In 2010s enabled by Myanmar crony Tay Za, Russia outpaced China’s arms sales to Myanmar. Russian sold Myanmar military MiG-29 jets, helicopters, Yak-130 training/attack jets, air defense missile systems, Su-30 fighter/attack aircraft, drones. irrawaddy.com/news/burma/bur…
3. Just before Myanmar military’s Feb. 1, 2021 coup, Russian Defense Minister General Sergei Shoigu visited Myanmar to finalize a new deal to supply arms to the country. Many have considered this a go ahead meeting for Gen. Min Aung Hlaing’s coup. irrawaddy.com/opinion/analys…
Read 16 tweets
Edith Mirante Profile picture
Feb 23, 2022
1. This History Thread is about Myanmar (Burma) People’s Defense Forces (PDFs) historical & cultural iconography. Designers use visual symbols to express power, pride, heritage for PDFs resisting Feb. 1, 2021 coup regime. Insignia pix via social media. #WhatsHappeningInMyanmar
2. In Sagaing Region, Sayar San PDF-4 of YMB (Yin Mar Bin Township) PDFs has a farmer’s hat with crossed swords as symbol & Depayin PDF uses Saya San picture. Saya San was charismatic leader of 1930-32 peasant revolt with sabotage campaign against British colonial rule of Burma.
3. Magway People’s Struggle Committee, a resistance group supporting PDFs, uses picture of Po Hla Gyi. Known as “the Ogre” he led Burmah Oil Company workers on strike for better pay & conditions 1938-9 which became a national general strike against colonial exploitation.
Read 11 tweets
Edith Mirante Profile picture
Jan 19, 2022
1. This History Thread is an overview of relations of ASEAN members with Burma (Myanmar.) Association of South East Asian Nations is regional political & economic organization which Myanmar controversially joined in 1997. Ineffective regarding 2021 coup. #WhatsHappeningInMyanmar
2. Thailand most significant of ASEAN members for relations w. Myanmar (Burma.) Constant Burmese-Siamese Wars 16th-19th C. Burma rulers repeatedly invaded Ayutthaya (Siam) & were invaded in turn. 19th C. British colonized Burma but Siam (wd. become Thailand) remained independent.
3. After Burma 1948 Independence & 1962 military rule, Thailand border rife with smuggling incl. drugs. Ethnic Armed Organizations fighting Burma (Myanmar) regime were tolerated by Thailand as buffer zone. Refugees fled Burma (Myanmar) mil. govt. human rights abuse to Thailand.
Read 20 tweets

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