Illuminated manuscripts embody the extraordinary union of beauty and knowledge.
Though the art of making them disappeared with the advent of the printing press, the most spectacular manuscripts survived the ages.
Here are 8 masterworks of medieval illumination🧵
1. The Morgan Crusader Bible, 13th century
Commissioned by French King Louis IX, the Morgan Crusader Bible depicts events from the Hebrew Bible set in the scenery and attire of 13th century France—it puts a medieval twist on Old Testament stories.
Consisting of 46 folios, the manuscript displays illustrations accompanied by text written in either Latin, Persian, Arabic, or Hebrew. The vivid colors and attention to detail make it one of the most popular illuminated manuscripts.
2. The Black Hours, 15th century
The Black Hours is a book of hours (a type of prayer book) created in Bruges, Belgium. The style is in imitation of Wilhelm Vrelant, the most popular illuminator of the period, and constructed of vellum (calfskin) that’s been dyed pitch black.
Gold and blue paint overlay the dark background to create an almost otherworldly look. Written in silver and gold ink, the text lists the prayers to be said while depictions of Bible stories aid the reader in meditation.
3. Book of Kells, 9th century
Among the most iconic medieval manuscripts is the Book of Kells. Created in a Columban monastery, the text is the pinnacle of early medieval calligraphy and illumination.
The graphics are a blend of insular art (the post-Roman era style of art popular in Irish monasteries) and traditional Christian iconography. Plants, animals, Celtic knots, and biblical figures decorate the 680 page volume to tell the story of Jesus’ life.
4. Codex Argenteus, 6th century
Latin for “Silver Book,” the Codex Argenteus contains the four gospels written in Gothic, making it one of the world’s foremost sources for the now-extinct language. The book was likely written as a gift for Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great.
The work is particularly striking due to its purple-stained vellum pages, metallic ink, and silver binding. Looks almost Tolkienesque…
5. Acre Bible, 13th Century
Another work commissioned by Louis IX, the Acre Bible was compiled shortly after the king’s release from captivity during the disastrous 7th crusade. Upon returning to France, he deposited the masterwork in his newly built Sainte-Chapelle library.
It contains 19 books of the Old Testament, and its illustrations are considered masterpieces of crusader art.
6. The Aberdeen Bestiary, 12-13th century
A bestiary is essentially an encyclopedia of animals and mythical beasts. They gained popularity throughout the Middle Ages as readers could learn about exotic animals or mythical creatures.
This one was owned by Henry VIII, and features a retelling of the Genesis creation story with fantastical images of creatures both real and imagined.
7. The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry, 15th century
The best surviving example of the International Gothic style of illumination, it’s one of the most lavishly designed late-medieval manuscripts and contains well over 100 illustrations.
Despite beautiful scenes covering most of its pages, the work didn’t shy away from darker imagery.
8. The Berthold Sacramentary, 13th century
Commissioned by the abbot of Weingarten Abbey, this manuscript is a form of missal called a sacramentary used by priests for liturgical services.
A sacramentary gives the priest's readings and prayers for the Mass. This one is a paragon of Romanesque art.
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Every civilization eventually dies — it’s inevitable.
But what can be done about it? What will you do when civilization crumbles around you?
According to historian Arnold Toynbee, there are precisely 3 options — and only one leads to survival…🧵
Toynbee was an English historian who published the 12 volume work “A Study of History,” which traced the life cycle of about two dozen world civilizations.
He attributed the growth and flourishing of civilizations to the creative energies of their leaders.
But once this energy is lost, disintegration and schism follow. A civilization then looks for new ways to recover its creativity.
Toynbee posited that during this phase citizens adopt new beliefs unlike the one that helped the civilization flourish in the first place.
Early Christians had a complete Bible by the 4th century — but that’s not the only thing they were reading to deepen their faith.
Here’s what books the early Church read besides the Bible🧵
1. The Didache, Anonymous, 1st cent.
The Didache is a brief discourse that contains moral and ritualistic teachings—a handbook for a Christian life.
It’s speculated the apostles wrote it, and contains the formulas for baptism and eucharist that are still used today.
2. The Shepherd of Hermas, Hermas, 2nd cent.
St. Iranaeus considered it to be canonical scripture. Though it missed the cut, it’s a fascinating work that centers around the life of a former slave who's given mystical visions and parables informing him how to live a faithful life
What do Sun Tzu, Machiavelli, and Otto von Bismarck all have in common?
They knew that in order to rule effectively, one must shun ideology.
Instead, they embraced realpolitik: rule based on facts, not lofty ideals…🧵
So what is realpolitik?
Realpolitik, as it is understood today, is the approach of making political or diplomatic decisions based on the given circumstances of a matter, not on moral or ethical considerations.
It’s political pragmatism to the nth degree.
The 19th century German writer Ludwig von Rochau first coined the term. He described it as the implementation of the idea that “the law of power governs the world of states just as the law of gravity governs the physical world.”
If you like Greek or Roman classics, you can thank a monk.
Just as much as on any battlefield, Western civilization was safeguarded within the quiet confines of a monastery...🧵
In the 6th century, the fate of western Europe was uncertain.
Barbarians had deposed the Roman emperor; age-old institutions were left decaying; the flame of civilization almost gone…
But at a monastery in Calabria, a monk named Cassiodorus toiled to keep this flame alight.
Born into an aristocratic family, Cassiodorus’ early career was a far cry from his later vocation.
He rose through the ranks of the Roman political scene, ultimately reaching Praetorian Prefect, the highest administrative role in the empire directly under Theodoric the Great.
Despite wielding absolute power, they used their authority to maintain peace and stability throughout the Roman empire and ushered in an age of unparalleled cultural heights🧵
In order, they were:
Nerva (reign 96–98 AD)
Trajan (98–117)
Hadrian (117–138)
Antoninus Pius (138–161)
Marcus Aurelius (161–180)
Notably, they were not a bloodline. All were either adopted, or in Nerva’s case, raised to power by assassins of Domitian (the previous emperor).
Machiavelli coined the term the “good emperors,” claiming their quality as leaders was a direct result of them being adopted and not inheriting the throne via blood.
He maintained that those who were raised to power by virtue of mere blood usually ended up being poor leaders.
Rome was the preeminent engineering civilization. Its roads, bridges, and aqueducts ensured an unmatched quality of life for its citizens.
Yet its greatest engineering feat wasn’t about providing a comfortable life—the Colosseum was built for a dramatic death🧵
The Colosseum became famous for its gladiatorial contests, executions, reenactments of famous battles, and even mock sea fights.
It was a theater designed with two things in mind: death and spectacle.
Constructed between 72-80 AD under Vespasian, the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in the Roman world. Holding a capacity of 65000 spectators, the building project required extraordinary human ingenuity.
Of course, such a massive undertaking required a lot of money…