Illuminated manuscripts embody the extraordinary union of beauty and knowledge.
Though the art of making them disappeared with the advent of the printing press, the most spectacular manuscripts survived the ages.
Here are 8 masterworks of medieval illumination🧵
1. The Morgan Crusader Bible, 13th century
Commissioned by French King Louis IX, the Morgan Crusader Bible depicts events from the Hebrew Bible set in the scenery and attire of 13th century France—it puts a medieval twist on Old Testament stories.
Consisting of 46 folios, the manuscript displays illustrations accompanied by text written in either Latin, Persian, Arabic, or Hebrew. The vivid colors and attention to detail make it one of the most popular illuminated manuscripts.
2. The Black Hours, 15th century
The Black Hours is a book of hours (a type of prayer book) created in Bruges, Belgium. The style is in imitation of Wilhelm Vrelant, the most popular illuminator of the period, and constructed of vellum (calfskin) that’s been dyed pitch black.
Gold and blue paint overlay the dark background to create an almost otherworldly look. Written in silver and gold ink, the text lists the prayers to be said while depictions of Bible stories aid the reader in meditation.
3. Book of Kells, 9th century
Among the most iconic medieval manuscripts is the Book of Kells. Created in a Columban monastery, the text is the pinnacle of early medieval calligraphy and illumination.
The graphics are a blend of insular art (the post-Roman era style of art popular in Irish monasteries) and traditional Christian iconography. Plants, animals, Celtic knots, and biblical figures decorate the 680 page volume to tell the story of Jesus’ life.
4. Codex Argenteus, 6th century
Latin for “Silver Book,” the Codex Argenteus contains the four gospels written in Gothic, making it one of the world’s foremost sources for the now-extinct language. The book was likely written as a gift for Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great.
The work is particularly striking due to its purple-stained vellum pages, metallic ink, and silver binding. Looks almost Tolkienesque…
5. Acre Bible, 13th Century
Another work commissioned by Louis IX, the Acre Bible was compiled shortly after the king’s release from captivity during the disastrous 7th crusade. Upon returning to France, he deposited the masterwork in his newly built Sainte-Chapelle library.
It contains 19 books of the Old Testament, and its illustrations are considered masterpieces of crusader art.
6. The Aberdeen Bestiary, 12-13th century
A bestiary is essentially an encyclopedia of animals and mythical beasts. They gained popularity throughout the Middle Ages as readers could learn about exotic animals or mythical creatures.
This one was owned by Henry VIII, and features a retelling of the Genesis creation story with fantastical images of creatures both real and imagined.
7. The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry, 15th century
The best surviving example of the International Gothic style of illumination, it’s one of the most lavishly designed late-medieval manuscripts and contains well over 100 illustrations.
Despite beautiful scenes covering most of its pages, the work didn’t shy away from darker imagery.
8. The Berthold Sacramentary, 13th century
Commissioned by the abbot of Weingarten Abbey, this manuscript is a form of missal called a sacramentary used by priests for liturgical services.
A sacramentary gives the priest's readings and prayers for the Mass. This one is a paragon of Romanesque art.
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If you like Greek or Roman classics, you can thank a monk.
Just as much as on any battlefield, Western civilization was safeguarded within the quiet confines of a monastery...🧵
In the 6th century, the fate of western Europe was uncertain.
Barbarians had deposed the Roman emperor; age-old institutions were left decaying; the flame of civilization almost gone…
But at a monastery in Calabria, a monk named Cassiodorus toiled to keep this flame alight.
Born into an aristocratic family, Cassiodorus’ early career was a far cry from his later vocation.
He rose through the ranks of the Roman political scene, ultimately reaching Praetorian Prefect, the highest administrative role in the empire directly under Theodoric the Great.
Despite wielding absolute power, they used their authority to maintain peace and stability throughout the Roman empire and ushered in an age of unparalleled cultural heights🧵
In order, they were:
Nerva (reign 96–98 AD)
Trajan (98–117)
Hadrian (117–138)
Antoninus Pius (138–161)
Marcus Aurelius (161–180)
Notably, they were not a bloodline. All were either adopted, or in Nerva’s case, raised to power by assassins of Domitian (the previous emperor).
Machiavelli coined the term the “good emperors,” claiming their quality as leaders was a direct result of them being adopted and not inheriting the throne via blood.
He maintained that those who were raised to power by virtue of mere blood usually ended up being poor leaders.
Rome was the preeminent engineering civilization. Its roads, bridges, and aqueducts ensured an unmatched quality of life for its citizens.
Yet its greatest engineering feat wasn’t about providing a comfortable life—the Colosseum was built for a dramatic death🧵
The Colosseum became famous for its gladiatorial contests, executions, reenactments of famous battles, and even mock sea fights.
It was a theater designed with two things in mind: death and spectacle.
Constructed between 72-80 AD under Vespasian, the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in the Roman world. Holding a capacity of 65000 spectators, the building project required extraordinary human ingenuity.
Of course, such a massive undertaking required a lot of money…
In 1831, French aristocrat Alexis de Tocqueville traveled to the US to study democracy.
He saw some positives, but also noted a few flaws such as:
-tyranny of the majority
-isolated individuals
-materialism
He claimed religion was essential to prevent these dangers...🧵
Alexis de Tocqueville was a diplomat sent by the French government to learn about the prison system in America.
While abroad, he used the opportunity to investigate American society as a whole, penning his most famous work ”Democracy in America.”
Traveling during the height of the industrial revolution, he believed democracy and industrialization went hand-in-hand—American democracy was the embodiment of this unification.
De Tocqueville described America as “a democratic revolution caused by industrialization.”
We’ve all seen gargoyles before — ghoulish carvings set outside old churches.
But why pair such ugly images with sacred buildings?
Well, to protect something priceless, you need something *monstrous*.
They teach us a lesson about defending what we love…🧵
First off, what is a gargoyle?
The word gargoyle comes from the French gargouille meaning “gullet” or “throat.”
A gargoyle, then, is a decorated water spout. They were used for a utilitarian purpose: to prevent water from flowing down the sides of buildings, causing erosion.
Not all the monstrous sculptures outside of cathedrals are gargoyles, though. Many are technically grotesques since they don’t funnel any water. A grotesque is simply a fantastic stone carving that’s secured to the wall or roof of a building.