Illuminated manuscripts embody the extraordinary union of beauty and knowledge.
Though the art of making them disappeared with the advent of the printing press, the most spectacular manuscripts survived the ages.
Here are 8 masterworks of medieval illumination🧵
1. The Morgan Crusader Bible, 13th century
Commissioned by French King Louis IX, the Morgan Crusader Bible depicts events from the Hebrew Bible set in the scenery and attire of 13th century France—it puts a medieval twist on Old Testament stories.
Consisting of 46 folios, the manuscript displays illustrations accompanied by text written in either Latin, Persian, Arabic, or Hebrew. The vivid colors and attention to detail make it one of the most popular illuminated manuscripts.
2. The Black Hours, 15th century
The Black Hours is a book of hours (a type of prayer book) created in Bruges, Belgium. The style is in imitation of Wilhelm Vrelant, the most popular illuminator of the period, and constructed of vellum (calfskin) that’s been dyed pitch black.
Gold and blue paint overlay the dark background to create an almost otherworldly look. Written in silver and gold ink, the text lists the prayers to be said while depictions of Bible stories aid the reader in meditation.
3. Book of Kells, 9th century
Among the most iconic medieval manuscripts is the Book of Kells. Created in a Columban monastery, the text is the pinnacle of early medieval calligraphy and illumination.
The graphics are a blend of insular art (the post-Roman era style of art popular in Irish monasteries) and traditional Christian iconography. Plants, animals, Celtic knots, and biblical figures decorate the 680 page volume to tell the story of Jesus’ life.
4. Codex Argenteus, 6th century
Latin for “Silver Book,” the Codex Argenteus contains the four gospels written in Gothic, making it one of the world’s foremost sources for the now-extinct language. The book was likely written as a gift for Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great.
The work is particularly striking due to its purple-stained vellum pages, metallic ink, and silver binding. Looks almost Tolkienesque…
5. Acre Bible, 13th Century
Another work commissioned by Louis IX, the Acre Bible was compiled shortly after the king’s release from captivity during the disastrous 7th crusade. Upon returning to France, he deposited the masterwork in his newly built Sainte-Chapelle library.
It contains 19 books of the Old Testament, and its illustrations are considered masterpieces of crusader art.
6. The Aberdeen Bestiary, 12-13th century
A bestiary is essentially an encyclopedia of animals and mythical beasts. They gained popularity throughout the Middle Ages as readers could learn about exotic animals or mythical creatures.
This one was owned by Henry VIII, and features a retelling of the Genesis creation story with fantastical images of creatures both real and imagined.
7. The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry, 15th century
The best surviving example of the International Gothic style of illumination, it’s one of the most lavishly designed late-medieval manuscripts and contains well over 100 illustrations.
Despite beautiful scenes covering most of its pages, the work didn’t shy away from darker imagery.
8. The Berthold Sacramentary, 13th century
Commissioned by the abbot of Weingarten Abbey, this manuscript is a form of missal called a sacramentary used by priests for liturgical services.
A sacramentary gives the priest's readings and prayers for the Mass. This one is a paragon of Romanesque art.
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Before GPS, navigating the open ocean was a dangerous, uncertain adventure that often ended in disaster.
Yet early explorers sailed the ocean blue long before modern technology made it easy—how did they do it?
Early navigation was crude and borderline divination.
In Indo-Pacific island chains, short migratory voyages relied on the bird signs, tell-tale ocean swells, and positions of heavenly bodies. Songs, stories, and star charts stored navigational knowledge for the next generation
Navigation of open waters increased one’s power in trade and war. If you could move farther and faster, you could not only grow your coffers, but also strike your enemies in places previously impossible.
Mastery of the open ocean was a strategic advantage.
The design of a cathedral is theologically based and instructive in the faith. Though beautiful, its construction is not arbitrary—it wasn’t arranged simply to look pretty.
The layout, artwork, statues, and stained glass windows all serve an edifying purpose🧵
The plan of a cathedral is cruciform in shape and is usually oriented eastward—ad orientum. Worshippers face the rising sun, a daily reminder of Christ’s resurrection.
The north and south transepts or “arms” represent Christ’s right and left hands on the cross.
The entrance at the West end corresponds with His feet; one enters at the foot of the cross and proceeds upward as they approach the altar.
The layout is divided into three parts: the narthex/vestibule for catechumens, the nave for laymen, and the sanctuary for clergy.
In the 19th-century, America believed it had a divine mission to expand westward.
Rooted in American exceptionalism, this idea was known as Manifest Destiny.
It inspired settlers—and soldiers—to "spread democracy" to the ends of the earth🧵
The term “manifest destiny” first appeared in an article by newspaper editor John O'Sullivan in 1845.
O'Sullivan, described as "always full of grand and world-embracing schemes," used the phrase in the midst of the ongoing Oregon boundary dispute with Britain.
He wrote it was America’s destiny to control North America:
“And that claim is by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty…”
Christianity conquered Rome—not only spiritually and politically, but architecturally, too. Some of the most iconic churches in the world used to be pagan temples.
Here’s how they were transformed🧵 (thread)
In the early centuries after Christ, Christianity rapidly expanded throughout the Roman empire. Paganism receded, leaving temples without a clear purpose.
At the end of the 4th century, Theodosius I closed them by decree.
Though Christians often chose locations of martyrs’ deaths for their churches like "Saint Paul Outside the Walls," the empty temples of Rome’s defeated pantheon were prime real estate for prospective church builders.
Alexander Hamilton argued in 1787 that the United States should resemble an elective monarchy.
It might sound like heresy to modern Americans, but his idea had some merit.
Here’s how it would’ve worked🧵
Hamilton gave a long and impassioned speech at the constitutional convention in favor of his position, nevertheless it was resoundingly voted down in favor of the presidential system the US has today.
But what did Hamilton advocate for exactly?
A Revolutionary army captain who fought fiercely against the British, Hamilton was actually sympathetic to the British system of government.
Specifically, he admired its strong monarch, and his proposed system was likely influenced by his understanding of Britain’s government.
Zoom in on this map—what parts of the world can you identify?
(hint: it’s upside down)
It’s called the Fra Mauro Map, and it shows the entire world according to a 15th-century monk.
It was a huge leap forward in western cartography, changing how map-making was done…🧵
The history of maps goes way back to the Paleolithic era.
One of the earliest known maps is a carved mammoth tusk thought to depict a mountain, river, and travel routes in modern-day Czech Republic. It dates to about 25,000 BC.
But it’s not very detailed or clear is it?
In ancient Babylonia, cartography techniques were greatly improved with the introduction of surveying techniques.
One map from the 13th century BC shows walls and buildings in the holy city of Nippur. This map is clear and usable.