Illuminated manuscripts embody the extraordinary union of beauty and knowledge.
Though the art of making them disappeared with the advent of the printing press, the most spectacular manuscripts survived the ages.
Here are 8 masterworks of medieval illumination🧵
1. The Morgan Crusader Bible, 13th century
Commissioned by French King Louis IX, the Morgan Crusader Bible depicts events from the Hebrew Bible set in the scenery and attire of 13th century France—it puts a medieval twist on Old Testament stories.
Consisting of 46 folios, the manuscript displays illustrations accompanied by text written in either Latin, Persian, Arabic, or Hebrew. The vivid colors and attention to detail make it one of the most popular illuminated manuscripts.
2. The Black Hours, 15th century
The Black Hours is a book of hours (a type of prayer book) created in Bruges, Belgium. The style is in imitation of Wilhelm Vrelant, the most popular illuminator of the period, and constructed of vellum (calfskin) that’s been dyed pitch black.
Gold and blue paint overlay the dark background to create an almost otherworldly look. Written in silver and gold ink, the text lists the prayers to be said while depictions of Bible stories aid the reader in meditation.
3. Book of Kells, 9th century
Among the most iconic medieval manuscripts is the Book of Kells. Created in a Columban monastery, the text is the pinnacle of early medieval calligraphy and illumination.
The graphics are a blend of insular art (the post-Roman era style of art popular in Irish monasteries) and traditional Christian iconography. Plants, animals, Celtic knots, and biblical figures decorate the 680 page volume to tell the story of Jesus’ life.
4. Codex Argenteus, 6th century
Latin for “Silver Book,” the Codex Argenteus contains the four gospels written in Gothic, making it one of the world’s foremost sources for the now-extinct language. The book was likely written as a gift for Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great.
The work is particularly striking due to its purple-stained vellum pages, metallic ink, and silver binding. Looks almost Tolkienesque…
5. Acre Bible, 13th Century
Another work commissioned by Louis IX, the Acre Bible was compiled shortly after the king’s release from captivity during the disastrous 7th crusade. Upon returning to France, he deposited the masterwork in his newly built Sainte-Chapelle library.
It contains 19 books of the Old Testament, and its illustrations are considered masterpieces of crusader art.
6. The Aberdeen Bestiary, 12-13th century
A bestiary is essentially an encyclopedia of animals and mythical beasts. They gained popularity throughout the Middle Ages as readers could learn about exotic animals or mythical creatures.
This one was owned by Henry VIII, and features a retelling of the Genesis creation story with fantastical images of creatures both real and imagined.
7. The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry, 15th century
The best surviving example of the International Gothic style of illumination, it’s one of the most lavishly designed late-medieval manuscripts and contains well over 100 illustrations.
Despite beautiful scenes covering most of its pages, the work didn’t shy away from darker imagery.
8. The Berthold Sacramentary, 13th century
Commissioned by the abbot of Weingarten Abbey, this manuscript is a form of missal called a sacramentary used by priests for liturgical services.
A sacramentary gives the priest's readings and prayers for the Mass. This one is a paragon of Romanesque art.
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The great men of history read intensively — it's how they gained an edge over their rivals.
We can do the same, today.
So here are the classics that influenced the greats, from ancient warriors to modern emperors🧵
Alexander
According to Plutarch, Alexander was given an annotated copy of the Iliad which he carried with him everywhere.
He considered it a “perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge” and was especially fascinated by the character Achilles.
Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius was extremely well-read. His tutor Fronto described how the emperor read works of Cato the Elder, Cicero, Lucretius, and Seneca in addition to numerous Greek tragedies.
The East India Company was the most powerful corporation of all time.
It had an army larger than Great Britain's, and its influence shaped the borders of nations.
So how did a company become stronger than most countries?🧵
The East India Company's origins started with famed explorer Francis Drake.
His voyage in 1577 opened the world to the East Indies, and when he returned to England in 1580, he brought exotic spices from the Spice Islands that investors believed could be a lucrative venture.
Soon after, the Queen granted a charter to a group of wealthy merchants and explorers for the region. The new corporation was called “Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies” or more commonly the “East India Company.”
Rome is usually remembered for its monuments, emperors, and epic battles.
But it was a haven for learning and literature as well. Some of the greatest written works were penned during Rome’s rule.
Here are 12 of the best🧵
12. The Annals and Histories, Tacitus
Tacitus’ works explore Rome in the first century. As a Roman senator he likely had privileged access to the Senate’s records from which to base much of his work.
Ronald Mellor calls Annals the “pinnacle of Roman historical writing.”
11. The Satires, Juvenal
A collection of satirical poems, it captures the energy of everyday Roman life.
Poems on prostitutes, fortune-tellers, politicians, and sycophants create a powerful denunciation of the degeneracy of Roman society.
The world of the late bronze age was the first “globalized” society.
But this highly connected network of cultures crumbled into a dark age after a series of disasters.
There are some striking parallels to today…🧵
In the 12th century BC, something strange happened in the Mediterranean.
The previously flourishing civilizations of the Egyptians, Mycenaeans, Hittites, and Babylonians all experienced a rapid, seemingly unexplainable decline.
Dozens of major cities were abandoned or completely demolished within a short period of time. Previously connected kingdoms became isolated, and cultural development stagnated.
“Civilizations die from suicide, not by murder,” according to 20th-century historian Arnold Toynbee.
He claimed every great culture collapses internally due to a divergence in values between the ruling class and the common people…🧵
Toynbee was an English historian and expert on international affairs who published the 12 volume work “A Study of History,” which traced the life cycle of about two dozen world civilizations.
Through his work he developed a model of how cultures develop and finally die…
Toynbee argued that civilizations emerge from primitive societies as a response to unique challenges — pressures from other cultures, difficult terrain or “hard country,” or warfare.