Dueling might seem barbaric today, but it actually reveals a culture obsessed with etiquette.

Duels served a few purposes:

-settled disputes
-encouraged civility
-channeled aggression

Unlike today, careless words had consequences…🧵 Dueling in the West can be traced to pre-Christian practices like the Norse “holmgang”.

A Viking-era duel, the holmgang was a legal way to settle disputes. Whether it was for honor, a legal dispute, or revenge, it was fought regardless of the parties’ social status.

The Ancient Greeks basically invented Western philosophy. 2500 years on and we’re still studying their ideas.

Here are 10 Greek philosophers you need to know🧵 1. Thales, 7th cent. BC

Thales was part of a new generation of thinkers trying to uncover how the cosmos were constructed without relying on the gods as an explanation. An early Monist, he considered a single element to be the main building block of the cosmos.

Kenneth Clark lamented that civilization was a fragile thing.

He observed three “enemies” that could topple even the mightiest cultures — what are they?🧵 The first enemy is fear:

“fear of war, fear of invasion, fear of plague and famine, that make it simply not worthwhile constructing things, or planting trees or even planning next year’s crops. And fear of the supernatural, which means that you daren’t question anything.”

The great men of history read intensively — it's how they gained an edge over their rivals.

We can do the same, today.

So here are the classics that influenced the greats, from ancient warriors to modern emperors🧵 Alexander

According to Plutarch, Alexander was given an annotated copy of the Iliad which he carried with him everywhere.

He considered it a “perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge” and was especially fascinated by the character Achilles.

The East India Company was the most powerful corporation of all time.

It had an army larger than Great Britain's, and its influence shaped the borders of nations.

So how did a company become stronger than most countries?🧵 The East India Company's origins started with famed explorer Francis Drake.

His voyage in 1577 opened the world to the East Indies, and when he returned to England in 1580, he brought exotic spices from the Spice Islands that investors believed could be a lucrative venture.

Rome is usually remembered for its monuments, emperors, and epic battles.

But it was a haven for learning and literature as well. Some of the greatest written works were penned during Rome’s rule.

Here are 12 of the best🧵 12. The Annals and Histories, Tacitus

Tacitus’ works explore Rome in the first century. As a Roman senator he likely had privileged access to the Senate’s records from which to base much of his work.

Ronald Mellor calls Annals the “pinnacle of Roman historical writing.”

The world of the late bronze age was the first “globalized” society.

But this highly connected network of cultures crumbled into a dark age after a series of disasters.

There are some striking parallels to today…🧵 In the 12th century BC, something strange happened in the Mediterranean.

The previously flourishing civilizations of the Egyptians, Mycenaeans, Hittites, and Babylonians all experienced a rapid, seemingly unexplainable decline.

“Civilizations die from suicide, not by murder,” according to 20th-century historian Arnold Toynbee.

He claimed every great culture collapses internally due to a divergence in values between the ruling class and the common people…🧵 Toynbee was an English historian and expert on international affairs who published the 12 volume work “A Study of History,” which traced the life cycle of about two dozen world civilizations.

Through his work he developed a model of how cultures develop and finally die…

There are a lot of misconceptions about the Inquisition.

Most people today view it as a medieval witch hunt spurred on by dark age superstition — but its initial intentions weren't so misguided…🧵 We’ve all heard of “the Inquisition,” but in fact no singular organization existed with this title.

Rather, the term refers to a judicial process by the Catholic Church that sought to combat heresy via trial.

There were multiple inquisitions in response to different heresies.

World-history is a war between man and nature, says Oswald Spengler.

But it’s a war that man is destined to lose.

One day, our cities and skyscrapers will lie in ruins “just like the palaces of old Memphis and Babylon”, he claims.

And the final climax is fast approaching…🧵 Oswald Spengler is best known for his work “Decline of the West” published in two parts—the first in 1918 and the second in 1922.

The work propelled him to fame as his philosophy depicted a tired, declining Western culture that resonated with Germans after the failure of WWI.

The French Revolution was one of the great tragedies of history.

It ushered in an era of:

-violence
-class warfare
-authoritarianism

But France’s faith suffered the most—thousands of priests were executed or exiled as a new atheistic religion was thrust onto the people…🧵 Before the revolution, France and Catholicism were inseparable.

France was called the “eldest daughter of the Church” since Frankish king Clovis I accepted the Catholic faith in the early 6th century.

The Holy Roman Empire lasted ~1000 years, and it looked like this:

How did such a fractured political entity last so long?

It has to do with a concept called “subsidiarity”, and it holds the key to implementing responsible government today 🧵 (thread) Voltaire famously derided the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) as “neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire”, but what couldn't be denied was its longevity.

Existing from 800-1806, it was birthed before William the Conqueror invaded England and continued on after the American Revolution.

Machiavelli promoted a *realistic* approach to governance.

It didn’t always involve being nice.

His work "The Prince" is packed with hard hitting truths for rulers — but there’s one lesson that modern leaders MUST pay attention to, or risk losing everything…🧵 Niccolò Machiavelli was a 15-16th century Florentine diplomat, philosopher, and author who’s best known for his political masterpiece “The Prince”.

Often called the father of modern political philosophy, he wrote the book as a guide for potential rulers.

Did you know the American $1 bill references Virgil?

The Great Seal featured on the bill was designed by a Latin teacher, and the inscription “annuit cœptis” comes from the Aeneid.

But there’s more — America’s entire ethos has Roman underpinnings…🧵 To understand how America adopted a Roman mentality, we first need to explore the idea of “Roman exceptionalism.”

It was essentially a type of self-confidence — a belief that Rome’s culture was better than all others.

Rome was the preeminent engineering civilization. Its roads, bridges, and aqueducts ensured an unmatched quality of life for its citizens.

Yet its greatest engineering feat wasn’t about providing comfort—the Colosseum was built for a dramatic death...🧵 The Colosseum became famous for its gladiatorial contests, executions, reenactments of famous battles, and even mock sea fights.

It was a theater designed with two things in mind: death and spectacle.

All empires repeat the same cycle, says 20th-century historian John Glubb.

He observed that for the past 3000 years every civilization has followed the same 6 stages before decline—what are they?🧵 Sir John Bagot Glubb was a British soldier and author who served as the commanding general for Transjordan's Arab Legion from 1939 to 1956.

In his later years he wrote about geopolitics and world history, and penned a succinct description of how civilizations rise and fall…

On May 20th, 1910, nine kings gathered at Windsor for the funeral of King Edward VII.

The photograph they took is a stark reminder of how drastically European leadership has changed—the men pictured remain symbols of a bygone era of monarchy.

Who were they?🧵 King Haakon VII of Norway (top row, far left)

Ruled from November 1905 until his death in 1957. After the 1905 dissolution of the union between Sweden and Norway, he became the first independent Norwegian monarch since Olaf II in 1387.

Galileo called him “superhuman”. Tesla said he was the “ideal” inventor. And da Vinci was directly inspired by him.

Simply put, Archimedes was the greatest engineer and mathematician of the ancient world.

Here’s why...🧵(thread) Born around 287 BC, Archimedes was an inventor, mathematician, astronomer, and engineer from the city of Syracuse in Sicily.

Very little is known of Archimedes’ life other than his discoveries and inventions, of which there were many.

Charles "the Hammer" — perhaps no figure deserves the title “defender of Western civilization” as much as him.

A warrior-statesman, he not only crushed foreign invasions but also laid the foundation for medieval Europe🧵 Born an illegitimate son to Pepin of Herstal, ruler of a few Frankish territories, Charles (c. 688–741 AD) enjoyed the youth of an aristocratic warrior, but was never expected to inherit his father’s rule.

The West has always been fascinated by exotic cultures—but nothing exemplifies this obsession with the “other” quite like Egyptomania.

The allure of Egypt reveals a deep desire for the eternal…🧵(thread) The Western interest in Egyptian culture dates back to ancient Greece and Rome, who took inspiration from Egypt’s art, religion, and philosophy.

For example, Alexander paid homage to the hybrid deity Zeus-Ammon, styled himself Pharaoh, and desired to be buried in Egypt.

Modern man has a severe case of amnesia—he’s forgotten the immense wisdom of the past.

Luckily, it can be rediscovered through great literature.

12 old books that will make you wiser… 🧵(thread) 12. Enchiridion, Epictetus

Epictetus never wrote down anything himself, but his student Arrian collected his teachings, recording them for future generations. His lessons enlighten the reader on matters regarding ethics and achieving inner freedom.