Siege weapons were some of the most impressive technologies of the medieval world.

Here's how they worked🧵(thread) Battering Ram

One of the oldest and simplest siege engines, a battering ram was designed to break open wooden gates or walls. Initially, it was just a heavy log carried by soldiers and slammed against the target.

Later, protective canopies were added to shield its operators.

Alfred the Great believed he was given divine authority to rule his kingdom.

This was not an excuse to abuse his power though. Rather, he saw it as a responsibility to care for his people…🧵 Few kings were as universally loved as Alfred.

Historian Edward Freeman called him “the most perfect character in history.”

King of the Anglo-Saxons in the late 9th-century, he oversaw the complete revitalization of his realm—militarily, economically, and culturally.

Modern man has a severe case of amnesia—he’s forgotten the immense wisdom of the past.

Luckily, it can be rediscovered through great literature.

12 old books that will make you wiser… 🧵(thread) 12. Enchiridion, Epictetus

Epictetus never wrote down anything himself, but his student Arrian collected his teachings, recording them for future generations. His lessons enlighten the reader on matters regarding ethics and achieving inner freedom.

Historian Will Durant claimed a culture’s success was intrinsically tied to its religiosity.

Strong nations were born out of faithful people, but when religion dwindled, things started to fall apart...🧵 Will Durant was a 20th-century American historian and philosopher most known for his 11-volume “Story of Civilization,” telling the history of both eastern and western civilizations.

His work led him to conclude that all cultures follow a predictable pattern…

A road might seem like a simple thing...

But it was mastery of road construction that made Rome the most connected—and powerful—empire in the ancient world.

Roman roads were engineering marvels in their own right 🧵 (thread) “All roads lead to Rome” is a saying everyone knows. And there’s a reason for it—Rome developed the most incredible network of interconnected highways in the ancient world.

It’s estimated there were over 50,000 miles (~80000 km) of paved roads throughout the empire.

The medieval period was full of theological literature.

Far from a dark age, it gave us some of the most intellectually stimulating Christian works.

10 great Christian texts from the middle ages 🧵 (thread) 10. Revelations of Divine Love, Julian of Norwich

Julian, an English ascetic, describes 16 visions she had while very ill, where she witnesses the pains of Christ’s passion and receives assurances about her eventual fate

It was largely unknown until its republishing in 1670.

There are a lot of misconceptions about the Inquisition.

Most people today view it as a medieval witch hunt spurred on by dark age superstition—but its initial intentions weren't so misguided…🧵 We’ve all heard of “the Inquisition,” but in fact no singular organization existed with this title.

Rather, the term refers to a judicial process by the Catholic Church that sought to combat heresy via trial.

There were multiple inquisitions in response to different heresies.

A democracy can only last 200 years.

At least, that’s according to 18th-century historian Alexander Tytler.

He claimed democracies always follow a predictable pattern and are doomed to end in servitude…🧵 Tytler was a Scottish judge, writer, and Professor of Universal History as well as Greek and Roman Antiquities at the University of Edinburgh.

After studying dozens of civilizations, he noticed some intriguing patterns…

The "science vs religion" dichotomy is false.

In fact, some of the most groundbreaking scientific discoveries were made by Catholic clergy.

Here are the top 5 scientific breakthroughs made by priests…🧵 (thread) 5) Atomic Theory (Boscovich Model)

Roger Boscovich, a Croatian physicist, astronomer, and mathematician, was a Catholic priest in the Jesuit order. His model of the atom, the “Boscovich Model,” was a forerunner to modern atomic theory.

Most cultural movements aren’t grass roots—they’re top down.

Charlemagne’s cultural rebirth, the “Carolingian renaissance,” proved how real cultural change is planned and executed by society’s elites…🧵 In the late 8th and early 9th century, Charlemagne ruled vast lands from Northern Spain to the North Sea.

Charlemagne was a skilled administrator, but his newfound empire had problems.

Among the most visible reminders of Rome's storied hegemony are its aqueducts.

These engineering marvels channeled the lifeblood of civilization for near a millennia.

Here’s how they worked…🧵 Rome’s aqueducts had humble origins, much like the city itself.

The first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, was constructed in 312 BC to supply the city’s cattle market.

Though Greece may have birthed Western philosophy, Rome revitalized it.

Here are the 10 greatest Roman philosophers that any true fan of Rome needs to know🧵 10. Lucius Cornutus (~60 AD)

A stoic who tutored Emperor Nero. He explored ethics, politics, and metaphysics, focusing on the concept of the Logos—the “divine reason” that rules the cosmos. He influenced later stoics like Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Kenneth Clark lamented that civilization was a fragile thing.

He observed three “enemies” that could topple even the mightiest cultures—what are they?🧵 The first enemy is fear:

“fear of war, fear of invasion, fear of plague and famine, that make it simply not worthwhile constructing things, or planting trees or even planning next year’s crops. And fear of the supernatural, which means that you daren’t question anything.”

The Roman Empire didn’t fall by itself.

Though it faced treachery, financial woes, and moral decay internally, barbarians toppled the destabilized empire and forged a new world from the ashes.

Here are the greatest barbarians to terrorize Rome🧵 Arminius (18 BC-21 AD)

A Latin education and Roman military service first marked him as a great ally of Rome. When Roman general and governor Varus requested his aid in the conquest of the tribes of Germania, Arminius mobilized his troops.

Benedict of Nursia wrote the rulebook on monasticism.

But his rules reached far beyond the confines of a monastery—their effects rippled into medieval society and helped shape the world we know today🧵 A failed abbot early in his monastic life, Benedict went on to establish several prominent monasteries in the 6th century. More than a dozen monasteries in central Italy owed him their existence, including the famed Monte Cassino.

There are a lot of misconceptions about feudalism.

Rather than a contrived political system, feudalism was really just a series of loyalties.

For near a millennia, civilization was held together by the oaths of honorable men...🧵 After the breakdown of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th and 6th centuries, society went through a restructuring. The political and social infrastructure provided by Rome ceased to function, creating a power vacuum that needed to be filled.

Enter Feudalism.

The entire medieval world—its cathedrals, artwork, and music—was informed by the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible.

It’s a text that led countless souls to heaven, but it's translator, St. Jerome, first had to experience hell...🧵 Born in 342, Jerome of Stridon hailed from the Roman province of Dalmatia, near modern Bosnia.

As a young man he showed great promise and was sent to Rome to study grammar, rhetoric and philosophy. He also mastered Latin and was introduced to the Greek language.

Before movies or novels, epic poetry was the preferred way of telling a riveting story. The most extraordinary tales were passed on in the form of meter and rhyme.

Here are 15 of the greatest epic poems🧵 1. The Odyssey, Homer

The “everyman’s journey” through life depicted in verse. Odysseus relies on smarts and sheer willpower to survive divine and natural trials on his way to Ithaca after the Trojan war.

It’s a timeless tale of strength and endurance to reach home.

There’s a 50-foot-tall dragon statue in Kamenka, Russia that breathes real fire.

A likeness of the region’s iconic folk villain, it’s one of countless dragon depictions around the world.

Nearly every culture has dragons—why? Dragon depictions are remarkably similar across cultures. They are usually a blend of reptilian, feline, and avian features. In the West, they are often winged, horned, and fire-breathing beasts; in the East, four-legged, serpentine creatures.

Rome was the preeminent engineering civilization. Its roads, bridges, and aqueducts ensured an unmatched quality of life for its citizens.

Yet its greatest engineering feat wasn’t about providing a comfortable life—the Colosseum was built for a dramatic death🧵 The Colosseum became famous for its gladiatorial contests, executions, reenactments of famous battles, and even mock sea fights.

It was a theater designed with two things in mind: death and spectacle.

The Ancient Greeks basically invented Western philosophy. 2500 years on and we’re still studying their ideas.

Here are 10 Greek philosophers you need to know🧵 1. Thales, 7th cent. BC

Thales was part of a new generation of thinkers trying to uncover how the cosmos were constructed without relying on the gods as an explanation. An early Monist, he considered a single element to be the main building block of the cosmos.