Most cultural movements aren’t grass roots—they’re top down.
Charlemagne’s cultural rebirth, the “Carolingian renaissance,” proved how real cultural change is planned and executed by society’s elites…🧵
In the late 8th and early 9th century, Charlemagne ruled vast lands from Northern Spain to the North Sea.
Charlemagne was a skilled administrator, but his newfound empire had problems.
Though the empire was flourishing economically—driven in part by a slave trade created by Charlemagne’s conquests—the centuries since Rome’s fall took a toll on the cultural development of the West.
Latin literacy was falling, a blow to the administrative and scholarly classes since Latin was essential for empire-wide communication.
Likewise, an uneducated clergy had difficulty interpreting and preaching on the Vulgate Bible, the universal biblical translation of the time.
On an aesthetic level, there were no cohesive architectural or artistic styles that marked his lands as a bonafide empire—empires needed grand building projects and beautiful art.
In short, the Frankish Kingdom wasn’t the beacon of culture that Charlemagne wanted it to be.
He devised a plan to create a “cultural rebirth.” He looked to ages past—to the high cultures of Greece and Rome—as models.
No scholar or artist himself, he needed to gather the brightest minds to pull off his cultural rejuvenation.
He brought in scholars from all across Europe: Peter of Pisa, a grammarian and poet, became Charlemagne’s Latin tutor; Paulinus of Aquileia, a prominent theologian, spearheaded the “Christianization” of the empire; and Paul the Deacon became the kingdom’s most eminent historian.
But the main architect behind Charlemagne's new renaissance was undoubtedly Alcuin of York, who was described in Einhard’s Vita Karoli Magni (Life of Charlemagne) as “The most learned man anywhere to be found."
Alcuin became one of the king’s closest advisors.
A British scholar and cleric, he saw himself as sowing seeds for a brighter future through education:
“In the morning, at the height of my powers, I sowed the seed in Britain, now in the evening when my blood is growing cold I am still sowing in France, hoping both will grow.”
Two documents penned by Alcuin, the “Admonitio Generalis” and “De Litteris Colendis,” laid out Charlemagne’s plan of enculturation. His task was twofold:
-Christianize the kingdom by reforming/disciplining the clergy
-Educational reform through the establishment of new schools
Culture, Charlemagne envisioned, would flow downstream from a religious and educated court literati—the “intellectual” class. It was a rigidly top-down approach.
And for the most part, it worked.
Religious texts were made more accessible, deepening Christianity’s foothold throughout the kingdom.
Schools taught religious music, singing, and psalms which encouraged the spread of the faith, and a focus on grammar made it so religious texts could be revised and edited.
There was an overall increase in literature, law, music, architecture, visual art, and liturgical reforms.
Newly established schools became effective centers of education, and new editions and copies of classic works, both Christian and pagan, were produced.
A new style of art emerged; a unique blend of classical mediterranean art forms and northern elements came to be known as “Carolingian Art.”
Defined by a lavish and dignified style, it was a precursor to Romanesque and Gothic art that later dominated Europe.
Illumination and ornate metalwork adorned manuscripts while frescoes and mosaics became popular in Churches and palaces.
Christian imagery was a recurring theme in Carolingian art—a visual reminder of Charlemagne’s mission to create a unified Christian empire.
Architectural projects also boomed during the Carolingian period.
Between 768 and 855, a whopping 27 new cathedrals, 417 monastic buildings and 100 royal residences were built. During Charlemagne's reign alone, 16 cathedrals, 232 monasteries and 65 palaces were constructed.
Lost building techniques were incorporated into new projects. An ancient architectural treatise written by Vitruvius was found, providing a template for stone-building techniques.
Thus, new stone structures were built in northern Europe for the first time since Rome’s presence.
Roman basilicas and triumphal arches were used as templates for Carolingian buildings, though the Franks put their own twist on them.
The Palatine Chapel at Aachen reflects late Roman building techniques with its vaults and arches.
Charlemagne’s efforts to revitalize the Church and educational institutions had a lasting effect, producing countless scholars and theologians.
Today, Carolingian cathedrals and palaces still stand as reminders of this mini-renaissance of the 8th and 9th centuries.
The Carolingian renaissance is a reminder that cultural developments are so often implemented hierarchically.
Though it’s tempting to envision a world that’s shaped by organic movements, real civilizational change usually requires a green light from the top.
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Carolingian architecture wasn’t as flashy as later movements like Gothic or Baroque, but it had a distinct, almost charming style that set it apart from older Roman construction.
It was the template for a new civilizational look.
A last note on Charlemagne: he never actually learned to read or write despite surrounding himself with so many scholars. He simply could not master it in his old age.
He never achieved philosopher-king status, but his people benefited greatly from his educational reforms.
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Before GPS, navigating the open ocean was a dangerous, uncertain adventure that often ended in disaster.
Yet early explorers sailed the ocean blue long before modern technology made it easy—how did they do it?
Early navigation was crude and borderline divination.
In Indo-Pacific island chains, short migratory voyages relied on the bird signs, tell-tale ocean swells, and positions of heavenly bodies. Songs, stories, and star charts stored navigational knowledge for the next generation
Navigation of open waters increased one’s power in trade and war. If you could move farther and faster, you could not only grow your coffers, but also strike your enemies in places previously impossible.
Mastery of the open ocean was a strategic advantage.
The design of a cathedral is theologically based and instructive in the faith. Though beautiful, its construction is not arbitrary—it wasn’t arranged simply to look pretty.
The layout, artwork, statues, and stained glass windows all serve an edifying purpose🧵
The plan of a cathedral is cruciform in shape and is usually oriented eastward—ad orientum. Worshippers face the rising sun, a daily reminder of Christ’s resurrection.
The north and south transepts or “arms” represent Christ’s right and left hands on the cross.
The entrance at the West end corresponds with His feet; one enters at the foot of the cross and proceeds upward as they approach the altar.
The layout is divided into three parts: the narthex/vestibule for catechumens, the nave for laymen, and the sanctuary for clergy.
In the 19th-century, America believed it had a divine mission to expand westward.
Rooted in American exceptionalism, this idea was known as Manifest Destiny.
It inspired settlers—and soldiers—to "spread democracy" to the ends of the earth🧵
The term “manifest destiny” first appeared in an article by newspaper editor John O'Sullivan in 1845.
O'Sullivan, described as "always full of grand and world-embracing schemes," used the phrase in the midst of the ongoing Oregon boundary dispute with Britain.
He wrote it was America’s destiny to control North America:
“And that claim is by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty…”
Christianity conquered Rome—not only spiritually and politically, but architecturally, too. Some of the most iconic churches in the world used to be pagan temples.
Here’s how they were transformed🧵 (thread)
In the early centuries after Christ, Christianity rapidly expanded throughout the Roman empire. Paganism receded, leaving temples without a clear purpose.
At the end of the 4th century, Theodosius I closed them by decree.
Though Christians often chose locations of martyrs’ deaths for their churches like "Saint Paul Outside the Walls," the empty temples of Rome’s defeated pantheon were prime real estate for prospective church builders.
Alexander Hamilton argued in 1787 that the United States should resemble an elective monarchy.
It might sound like heresy to modern Americans, but his idea had some merit.
Here’s how it would’ve worked🧵
Hamilton gave a long and impassioned speech at the constitutional convention in favor of his position, nevertheless it was resoundingly voted down in favor of the presidential system the US has today.
But what did Hamilton advocate for exactly?
A Revolutionary army captain who fought fiercely against the British, Hamilton was actually sympathetic to the British system of government.
Specifically, he admired its strong monarch, and his proposed system was likely influenced by his understanding of Britain’s government.
Zoom in on this map—what parts of the world can you identify?
(hint: it’s upside down)
It’s called the Fra Mauro Map, and it shows the entire world according to a 15th-century monk.
It was a huge leap forward in western cartography, changing how map-making was done…🧵
The history of maps goes way back to the Paleolithic era.
One of the earliest known maps is a carved mammoth tusk thought to depict a mountain, river, and travel routes in modern-day Czech Republic. It dates to about 25,000 BC.
But it’s not very detailed or clear is it?
In ancient Babylonia, cartography techniques were greatly improved with the introduction of surveying techniques.
One map from the 13th century BC shows walls and buildings in the holy city of Nippur. This map is clear and usable.