Before 1890s, the prosperity and upkeep of the Haramain (Mecca & Medina) and Hejaz largely depended on the Indian Muslims.

Henceforth, the Ottomans referred to the Hajj as mevsim-i Hindî (“the Indian season”).

The largest & most lavish grants & endowments came from Indian Muslim monarchs and aristocrats.

For instance, the Muzaffarids sultanate (just 1 out of 8 or 9 sultanates in India) used to remit 70,000 misqals of gold annually.

This sum equalled the annual revenue of the Republic of Genoa, a third of the net annual revenue of Venice at its peak, and amounted to nearly 3.5% of the total annual revenue of the Ottoman Empire.

(scroll below for sources)

https://x.com/Rustum_0/status/2054274160881238041

https://x.com/i/status/2009836561643536625

While going through an old German account, by Johann Heinrich Seyfried (1640-1715), this mention of Prince Aurangzeb's defeat against Portuguese caught my attention.

It says 40,000 Indo-Muslim forces were defeated by a small body of Europeans.

Common European Fraud — Scroll🧵 Obviously, it is an exaggeration. We know that better trained British were crushed by far fewer men under Siddi Yaqut Khan.

So, we look in other accounts. A French traveller to India, Barthélemy Carré (b. 1632) writes that a handful Europeans defeated 200,000 Indo-Muslim forces.

It is time we break the shackles, bonds, and barriers imposed by the Hindu right nationalists, radicals, and leftists which force us to distort the truth to please them and get the history correct:

Hindus partitioned India.🧵

https://twitter.com/Rustum_0/status/1964997802129498317

The Muslim League rose as a response to rising Hindu nationalism and fears over the future of Indian Muslims.

It never sought a separate nation at first. Even the term ‘Pakistan’ initially meant a chain of provinces within the Indian Union with greater internal autonomy.

India’s 15% Muslim minority suffers such deep discrimination and underrepresentation in the judiciary and police that law and order itself practically appears weaponised against them.

I am attaching some pages in this thread 🧵

https://twitter.com/LiveLawIndia/status/1962814141107970175

I wish, the Muslims of India could move beyond flawed nationalist or Islamist lenses to objectively analyse, appreciate, and critique the era of British Raj.🧵

#IndependenceEve2025🇮🇳 As an Indian Muslim, I regard the British Raj as the final stronghold of our political influence, sovereignty, and cultural presence. And, this is true.

I refuse to be mislead into adopting the simplistic and flawed narratives of Indian vs. Foreigner or Muslim vs. Kaffir.

A largely unrecognised achievement of the Mughal Empire was its decisive role in ending the millennia-old pattern of cavalry incursions from the Central Asian steppes.

This was accomplished through a fundamental transformation of old Indian military structure, rendering ... 🧵
traditional steppe cavalry tactics ineffective against gunpowder-based infantry & cavalry formations.

Nadir Shah the Iranian's was the only sucessful invasion of India, and it succeeded not through cavalry, but through superior artillery and strategic acumen.

The “Maratha Empire” Maps are Incorrect: 🧵

The Kingdom of Bikaner [60,391 Km²]
The Kingdom of Jaisalmer [41,600 Km²]
The Kingdom of Kutch [45,674 Km²]

None of these paid either tribute or acknowledged Maratha suzerainty.

While the world celebrates the Battle of Ain Jalut (1260), few recall the valiant efforts of Indian Muslims against the Mongols, which single handedly saved Islamic civilization from utter collapse.

Thread 🧵: The Role of Indian Muslims in the Triumph of India over Mongols. A contemporary Persian, Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani (d. 1266) narrates the subjugation Muslims faced since Changiz Khan's 1219 invasion. Following Baghdad's Sack (1258), India emerged as a refuge for Muslims fleeing the Mongols, becoming a leading bastion of Islamic civilization.

The participation of Gangetic-Yamunite Muslims in the War of 1857, led by Gangetic population, which led to dissolution of Colonial British EIC rule and establishment of a liberal joint rule of Princely states [over 52% landmass] and British crown [over 48% landmass].

Thread🧵: Despite constituting only 10.6% of the population, Muslims were overrepresented in the bureaucracy. Even after losing favour post-1857, they were:

District governors: 54% Ms
Sub-district governors: 53% Ms
Judiciary: 56% Ms
Salaried over Rs.150 monthly: 35% Ms

The Khanzadah (Yaduvanshi Muslim) Rajput rulers of Mewat bestowed an exquisite architectural legacy, all of which has regrettably fallen into despair.

THREAD 🧵: The leftover ruins of mediaeval Muslim Rajput architecture.

1) Khanzadah Fateh Jung Ka Gumbad, Alwar.

2) Hill Fort Kesroli, Alwar.

The Reign of Failure: Sambhaji's Disastrous Era.

Under Chhatrapati Sambhaji's rule (1681–1689), the Maratha state crumbled. His leadership brought devastating defeats and left the Maratha empire in chaos.

Thread 🧵:
(1) Battle of Dharampur, june 1681 — Muzaffar Khan & Ranmast Khan defeated marathas near Dharampur pass. Marathas abandon 8000 cattle & captives.

(2) Battle of Punagarh, october 1681 — Ranmast Khan routed marathas & took back most of the booty in their invasion of Punagarh.

Our friend [@TrueIndology] has returned to save his face after being refuted for writing a bogus thread. However, this "face saving" is futile. Let us delve into this issue — 🧵.

The functioning of Sambhal Mosque has been recorded by Anand Ram Mukhlis [Safarnama; 1745 CE].

https://twitter.com/TrueIndology/status/1863831649655328889

If @TrueIndology had given some attention to the thread instead of striving to save his face, he would have noticed the mention of Imperial firman dated 1689 CE confirming the Imāmat of the Mosque of Sambhal.

Here are the full pages which he definitely knew.

An notorious attempt has been made to appropriate an Indo-Islamic monument, the Mosque of Sambhal, based on some ‘assumptions’ against historical sources. Let us analyse — 🧵.

“... It did not even exist until 19th century ...”
— Jama Masjid of Sambhal, sketched in 1789 CE.

https://twitter.com/TrueIndology/status/1861814441051865595

Thomas Daniel (1749-1840) and William Daniel (1769-1837) sketching it on 24 March 1789 CE, means the Mosque was already present in there for years (to say the very least). Why?

The “dome” is not an Indian architectural features and building it required years to build back then.

In this thread [🧵], I will briefly respond to the fallacious allegations hurled against Indian Muslims regarding partition (1947):

The thread will be revolving around one commonly hurled argument - Did Indian Muslim really have a choice to migrate? In the year 1941 CE, the regions which now fall under the Republic of India had a Muslim population estimated around ~42,645,000 out of total ~318,660,580 [Republican boundaries].

Cowardice is an inherent trait of the Kashmiri Muslims and it is nothing new rather historical accounts also attest it.

THREAD 🧵

(1) Tyndale-Biscoe (1863 – 1949) notes down that the word 'Kashmiri' was considered an abuse by any man since it stood for 'coward and rogue'.

https://twitter.com/roflxvalley2x/status/1823779635114729816

(2) Cecil Earle Tyndale-Biscoe (1863 - 1949) also noted that young Kashmiri children would feel immense pride in remaining cowardly.

I am most delighted to share my researches on the relations between Empire of China (Ming Dynasty) and Timurid Emirate.

It seems that the Emperors of China looked upon Timurid Amirs (including Amir Timur) as their subordinate dependents and tributaries. — Thread🧵. Ruy González de Clavijo, the ambassador (1403-05) of Henry III of Castile to the court of Timur mentions a Chinese embassy demanding arrears of tribute from Timur for past 7 years.

This means, Timur (reign 1370-1405) had been a tributary of Chinese emperor for at least 26 years.

Travancore state (now part of Kerela) situated in the southernmost part of India was a vassal and tributary of Mughal Empire. — 🧵

Here is a Qaul-namah of Nawab Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah of Arcot to his feudatory, the Zamindar of Malabar (i.e. Raja Rama Verma I of Travancore).

Tributes paid by Kings of Travancore to the Mughal Nāzimat (Province) of Arcot (Carnatic).

Before 1766 CE :—
Peshkash - 40,000 fanams (4,000rupees).

After 1766 CE :—
Peshkash - 60,000 fanams (6,000 rupees).
Nazarana - 73,190 fanams (7,319 rupees).
Additional - 5 elephants.

Inconsistencies within the sources used for claiming Nawab Hyder Ali of Mysore as either Sayyid or Punjabi.

(1) Nishan I Hyderi by Hussain Ali Kirmani, who was in service of Tipu Sultan from 1782 to 1786.

Note the names of Haidar’s ancestors, residence and periods mentioned.


(2) Historical sketches of the south of India, in an attempt trace the history of Mysoor by Lieutenant Colonel Mark Wilks (1759–1831).

Note how the claim is only based on tradition. Also again take a glance of the names of Haidar’s ancestors, residence and and periods mentioned.

How do we know that Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat sultanate which ruled such huge landmass was native Indian Muslim (converts from Hinduism) ?

Let us read in detail about the Rajput and Gangetic origins of the Muzaffarids in the light of primary sources.

[🧵THREAD🧵]

Mirat-i-sikandari states that Zafar Khan, the founder of sultanate, was a Tāk (تاک) belonging to Kahteri (کهتري) tribe.

Mirat-i-ahmedi says same except instead the word Tāk, uses the word Tānk (تانک).

Both attest their Suryavanshi lineage going back till Rajah Ramachandra.