Given the recent publicity of the headless idol of Vishnu at Khajuraho, I would like to bring attention to the vandalised idols at Garhwa in Prayagraj. Unlike the Javari idol, those at Garhwa weren't vandalised in remote past. Photographs show that most idols here were intact until a few decades ago. As an archaeologist, I have been studying this site since 2022.

For instance, take a look at this massive seated idol of Shiva. The inscription on it's pedestal suggests it was built sometime in the late 9th to early 10th century CE. The black and white photograph on the right was taken in 1961 which shows that the head was intact which is missing now.

1/n Garhwa was an important Vaishnav site. Although, it only has one existing shrine of Vishnu today, but it was likely a large temple complex since the Gupta times. I have recently discovered the oldest Ram temple Prashasti from this site.

The site has a beautiful set of massive sculptures of Dashavataras from circa 11th century CE. Nearly all of these idols have been damaged in recent times. For instance, all the four Veda Purushas in the matsya sculpture have been defaced. 2/n

Misleading, the divinity of Rāma was established long ago, likely in the centuries before Christ. While, one may still argue that certain portions in rhe Ramayana, particularly pertaining to his divinity as an Avatāra of Viṣṇu are later additions to the Valmiki Ramayana, but this happened in the ancient times, and certainly has nothing to do with the Asiatic Society.

A Kushana inscription from Kaushambi, UP, circa 2nd century CE, records the expression "bhagavato-Rāma-Nārāyaṇa." This is perhaps the earliest archaeological evidence of Rāma's divinity as an avatāra of Viṣṇu.

1/n Next we have the grant of Mahārāja Bhuluṇḍa of Valkha from Madhya Pradesh dated Gupta era 47, or 366-67 CE. In the line 3 of this grant, not Rāma but Viṣṇu is mentioned as having slain Daśavadana or Rāvaṇa. By the 4th century CE, the idea of Rama's indistinctness with Viṣṇu had already been established. 2/n

Announcement:

Discovery of the first copper plate of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Kannauj

Last week, another unpublished copper plate was brought to my attention. It is signed in the name of king Amṛtapāladeva in characters of circa 12th century CE. The plate consists of 27 lines of writing in Sanskrit. Our preliminary reading suggests it is a Brahmadeya landgrant.

So far, only one stone inscription of this dynasty is known from Badaun of the king Lakhaṇapāla who was the brother of the king mentioned in this inscription. However that inscription is undated.

1/n The line 16 of the record mentions the date of Amāvasyā of Āśvina of Vikrama Samvat 1202, Monday. The record was issued after the king took a bath on the banks of Gaṅgā at Vodāmayūta, or the ancient name of Badaun.

2/n

On the occasion of Rāma-Navamī, here is a thread on my presentation on Raghava Yatra in the symposium on Jatras by @IndicaOrg :

The newly discovered Garhwa Inscription of Kirttivarmman from Prayagraj mentions the celebration of Rāghava-Yātrā or a festival in honour of Rama for the first time.
The date of the inscription, 11th of the bright half of Chaitra, is of great significance. It is recorded in the last line which reads:
"संवत् ११५२ चैत्र सुदि ११ शुक्रे राघवयात्रायां प्रतिष्ठापितेयं प्रशस्तिरिति"

"In the year (Vikrama) 1152, on the 11th of the bright half of Chaitra, this Prashasti was erected during Raghav Yatra"

The Yatra procession likely began on Rama Navami, ie 2 days before the Yatra festival culminated. So far, no epigraphical attestations of the festivities surrounding Rāma-Navamī are known. The earliest textual evidence comes from a 13th century text known as Agastya Samhita.

Pictured: A life-sized idol of Rama from Garhwa, Prayagraj

1/n The historical context of the site is also of great significance. About 6 Gupta inscriptions from the 5th century CE have been reported from Garhwa so far. All of them are fragmentary, but 4 could be translated. Out of these, 3 inscriptions record the existence of a charitable alms-house that fed mendicants and Brahmins for free.

The 4th and perhaps the most significant inscription, which is dated to the time of Skandagupta, mentions the existence of a Shrine of Ananta-svamin, ie Lord Vishnu, who was worshipped as Chitrakoot-svamin, ie Lord Rama who spent the vast majority of his exile in the forests of Chitrakoot. This points towards the existence of an ancient cult of Rama-worshippers at Garhwa in Prayagraj.

2/n

Thread 🧵 Tentative identification of the earliest known Rama shrine mentioned in the Garhwa Inscription of Kirttivarman Chandela of Vikrama Samvat 1152:

During my second visit to the Garhwa fort, I encountered the ruins of large temple underneath a wild fig tree in the north-western corner of the Garhwa fort in Prayagraj. (red circle)

The only extant temple was established in the year 1199 Vikrama samvat. (Green circle)

1/n The ruins consists of several pillars and portions of the walls, made of red sand stone; as opposed to the current temple which is made of yellow sandstone.

2/n

🧵 A 10th century inscribed Buddha image donated by a Kayastha chief in Mithila

This large image of black basalt is located in the Bhagavati Mandir, Korthu village, Darbhanga district Bihar; published by Dr. Jalaj Kumar Tiwari in Mithila Bharati, 2019.

It consists of Lord Buddha standing in the middle under a Chhatra, in Samapadsthanaka pose on a lotus. To his right and left are is Padmapani Avalokitesvara and Maitreya respectively, both in Tribhanga posture on lotus pedestals. The sculpture is beautifully carved with several attendants.

The inscription consists of a single line incised on the pedestal of this sculpture. But it is of great historical value and reveals several important details about the contemporary socio-political conditions.

1/4 The inscription on the Buddha pedestal is undated, but based on the characters it belongs to the 10th century. It reads:

"चेदी वं(शी)य कायस्थ-नादा श्री देहदलस्य"

"(This image is a gift) by Sri Dehadala, the leader of the Kayasthas, hailing from the Chedi region."

The inscription attests the expansion of the Chedis, ie, Kalachuris into Mithila around this time. Moreover, epigraphical evidences show that Kayasthas of Gauda and Srivastava lineages served as hereditary ministers to various branches of the Kalachuri dynasty, especially those of Tripuri. There is evidence of Kalachuri kings giving hereditary grants to families if Kayasthas. Presumably, Dehadala could have been the head of a Kayastha guild that accompanied the Kalachuris into Mithila.

2/4

🧵 A new, unpublished, 11th century inscription of Kirttivarman Chandela issued by his Kayastha minister:

I am glad to announce that 2 days back during an exploration in Garhwa, Allahabad, my colleagues and I discovered a large stone slab inscription of Kirttivarman Chandela. It consists of 16 lines, and barring a couple of letters on the left margin of every line, the rest is in an excellent state of preservation. The language is Sanskrit as usual in nearly emgraved characters of 11th century Nagari. This is perhaps the first stone inscription of Chandelas to be discovered at Allahabad. It is of immense historical importance as we shall see further in this thread.

Although, the transcription is completed and the translation is also almost done, I can't share the entire record here before it is published. Nevertheless, I shall discuss some interesting bits of this record in this thread.

The inscription records three kings of the चन्द्रात्रेय-नरेश्वर-वन्शे, ie, the Lunar Chandela dynasty, viz Vidyadhara, Vijayapala and Kirttivarman.

The record seems to be the eulogy of a Rama temple constructed in Allahabad on the path to Chitrakoot by a minister of Kirttivarman Chandela.

1/n After a brief discription of the three kings of this dynasty is mentioned the minister Vatsaraja who seems to be the issuer of the record at hand. He is described as a Srivastava Kayastha in this record. Here is a transcription of the verse about him:

"वास्तव्य-आन्वय तिलको नय मार्ग्ग गुरूर्गुणेक निधिः। अभवच्च वत्सराज स्तभ्य..... सान्धिविग्रहिकः"

"Vatsaraja, the crest-jewel of the Vastavya lineage (Srivastava), a guide on the path of policy, a mine of virtues, became the Minister of Peace and War."

The post of सन्धि-विग्रहिक, or the Minister of Peace and War is known since ancient times. This office combined defence and diplomacy. In the early mediaeval times it was monopolised by Kayasthas from Rajasthan to Odisha.

However, only two Sandhi-Vigrahikas are known from the inscriptions of Chandelas. This is the third Sandhi-Vigrahika being reported for the first time.

2/n

THREAD

On the etymology of the Kayastha subcaste Srivastava:

Srivastavas are today counted among the Chitraguptavanshi Kayasthas of northern India, found across several Hindi speaking states and Nepal. There are several popular derivations of this surname. But in this thread we will try to understand the etymology of this name using epigraphical records.

The clan name of Srivastava is found in several inscriptions of early-medieaval north central India as writers, officials and ministers of various kingdoms. The original spelling of the name was श्री-वास्तव्य (Śrī-vāstavya) with श्री as a prefix- which is sometimes absent in old records of this clan. Three epigraphical records by different families of this clan give us a derivation of this name which we shall discuss here.

Two families of Srivastavas served as hereditary ministers to the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti. Both these families claimed descent from Rishi Kashyap, but they differ in the etymological derivation of their clan name. Both their records are known from the Ajaigarh fort in Panna.
One of the families was originally from a city named Kausamyapura where they served as ministers to a local dynasty. Some time later they Nana, a member thereof, who was a minister of Bhojavarman Chandela established a Vishnu mandir inside the fort, as mentioned in a large stone inscription dated to 1345 Vikrama Samvat (1288 CE) now housed at the Calcutta museum.

1/n The appellation of Srivastava first occurs in relation to an ancestor of this family who was a descendant of Kashyap. In the verse 15 of this record he is desribed thus:
श्रियो-निवासादभजत्स-वंशो-वास्तव्यताम-प्रतिरूप-कोटिम्

"Endowed with endless virtues (श्री) the whole family thus enjoyed the appellation of Śrī-vāstavya, or the abode of श्री"

2/n

🧵 THREAD

Contextulising Kāyastha Nindā: How bureaucratic monopoly, professional rivalry and corruption shaped the image of a caste

In our previous thread, we saw how Kayasthas had a stronghold on the early mediaeval revenue system from the lowest to the highest rungs. But the genesis of this group can be traced to even earlier. Now, it is not exactly clear when Kayasthas coalesced into a Jati group, but as an official post, they became prominent since the Gupta era. We shall discuss Kayasthas in Gupta era bureaucracy separately. In this thread we will examine the origin, causes and development of Kayastha-Ninda based on epigraphical and literary sources.

One of the earliest mention of Kayasthas in a religious text comes from the Yajnavalkya smriti. Verse 336 of the Smriti states:
चाटतस्करदुर्वृत्तमहासाहसिकादिभिः ।
पीऽयमानाः प्रजारक्षेत्कायस्थैश्च विशेषतः ।।
"The King must protect his subjects from thieves, dacoits, men of bad conduct, rogues and especially Kayasthas."

Pictured: A folio of an 18th century manuscript of Mitakshara, a commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti.

1/n The exact date of compilation of this Smriti is unknown, but it can be estimated based on its dated commentaries. The early ones, by Vijnaneswar, Vishvarup and Aparaditya, are largely on the same text that is available today; Vijnaneswar, from the 8th century, being the oldest. Based on this assessment, Yajnavalkya can be dated to the middle of the first millenium CE.

Around this time, Kayasthas were rising in the Gupta bureaucracy. Mahamahopadhyaya Haraprasada Shastri remarks that between 500-600 CE in Bengal, "none could obtain even a very small piece of land in a village without the assent of the Kayasthas."
For instnace, in the Faridpur charter of Gopachandra, circa 6th century CE, a Jyeshtha Kayastha ascertained the land to be awarded as grant to a Brahmin.
Such a control over the system would have also resulted in corruption which is reflected in the above verse.

But the detailed account of the bureaucratic tyranny of Kayasthas comes from the Kashmiri writers Kshemendra and Kalhana.

2/n

🧵 Kayasthas in the revenue department: An in depth survey of early mediaeval land grants

As a class of record-keepers, Kayasthas were primarily associated with revenue department of early-medieaval kingdoms in North-India. Both literary and epigraphical evidence, particularly copper plate grants, suggest that members of this group occupied all rungs of the revenue administration in those times and were also the benefactors thereof.

In this thread we will study, how not only Kayasthas shaped and managed the revenue administration, but also how their own social identity was shaped by the system.
1/n In early mediaeval records, an officer of the revenue department was generally known as the अक्षपटलिक (Akshapatalika). Copper plate land-grants suggest that there were different grades of this post. The highest being महा-अक्षपटलिक the general superintendent of revenue records of the state. In many medieval kingdoms, this post was monopolised by members of the Kayastha caste.

2/n

🧵 Gauda Kayasthas: A bridge between Kayasthas of the north and east

According to the legend of Adisura, Kayasthas and Brahmins were brought to Bengal from Kanyakubja sometime after the fall of the Palas. The higher ranking members of the two were raised to the status of Kulins, while the rest were relegated to the status of Mauliks.
However, this legend doesn't find support in historical records for either castes.

Kayasthas are known from Bengal since atleast the Gupta era. The Damodarapura Copper plate of Kumaragupta I from Bengal, dated 444 CE, mentions a Prathama Kayastha named Shamba-Pala. Members of this group seemed to have played an important role in the administration of Gupta era Bengal, and continued to do so ever after.

We will discuss the genesis of Kayasthas of Bengal from an official post to a Jati a separate thread.

In this thread we shall document, how contrary to the popular belief, there is evidence of the migration of some Kayastha lineages from Bengal to parts of Northern India during early mediaeval period and how they merged with the local Kayasthas.

1/n In the current times, a subcaste of Chitragupta Kayasthas of northern India is named Gauda. There are several legends regarding the origins of this subcaste and their provenance remains a matter of debate. There have been a multitude of places named Gauda. Although generally associated with Bengal, other parts of Northern India were also called Gauda. Regarding, Kayasthas of this name, epigraphical records might offer some clue.

One of the earliest records of a Gauda Kayastha outside Bengal comes from the Khajuraho inscription of Yasovarman Chandel of 1011 Vikrama Samvat (954 CE). The writer of this record is a "Gauda" Karanika named Jaddha. Interestingly enough, this record also describes the victory of Chandelas over the Palas- the rulers of Gauda country which is undoubtedly Bengal.

2/n

🧵 Kayasthas in the Gahadavala realm: An epigraphical survey

Roughly 100 epigraphical records are known from the times of the Gahadavalas, from 11th to 12th centuries CE. Most of these are copper plate land grants to Brahmins. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of large stone inscriptions the likes of which were issued by other dynasties of the times, viz Chandelas, Kalachuris, Paramaras etc. Thus, it is hard to deduce the exact social conditions and the administrative setup of this dynasty. However, the majority of the grants were written by Kayasthas who seem to have monopolised the record keeping in this kingdom. In this thread we will analyse what these records tell us about the contemporary Kayasthas.

1/12 x.com/historiakayast…
All in all, 29 writers of Gahadavalas are known by name who authored about 100 extant records. Of these, 12 have been mentioned as Karanika and Kayastha. The fact that Kayastha has been used synonymously with Karanika is attested from two records authored by a certain Thakkura Jalhana during the reign of Govindachandra.
In the first record from Bhadaini of Samvat 1171 (1114 CE), Thakkura Jalhana is mentioned as:
करणिकोद्गतो विद्वांशचित्रगुप्तोपमो गुणैः
"Born in the Karanika lineage, like Chitragupta in qualities"
We posted about this earlier in the thread below:
2/12

Some notable Sanskrit lexicons authored by Kayasthas-

We have seen earlier how Kayasthas have produced Sanskrit litereteurs of note. In this thread we will document some prominent Sanskrit lexicons authored by members of this community.

1. Paramandiyanamamala (परमानन्दीयनाममाला)

This lexicon was jointly authored by Makarandadasa and his father Thakkura Paramananda who were Mathur Kayasthas. They seem to belong to a family of landlords from Yavanapura.

The book seemingly consists of three independent sections, viz

i) Namamala (नाममाला): It is further divided into 4 sections, first dealing with synonyms and the rest with homonyms.

ii) Anekarthasangraha (अनेकार्थसंग्रह): It lists a number of homonyms for a given word in alphabetical order.

iii) Linganushasan (लिंगानुशासन): The last section deals with the substantive of masculine, feminine, neuter, epicene, masculine and neuter, feminine and
neuter, and triple gender.

1/n x.com/historiakayast…

The Mathur Kayasthas have historically been great scholars of Sanskrit language. The eminent epigraphist D.C. Sircar has remarked that 'the Kayasthas of the Mathur community' were 'assiduous students of Sanskrit' and composed Prashastis of 'no mean order.' You can read more about some notable Sanskrit poets of this community in the thread quoted below.

2/n

🧵~A new epigraph from Ajaigarh, Panna, MP: The Ganapati stone pedestal Inscription and its importance in reconstructing the history of Kayasthas in the mediaeval era.~

This previously undocumented record consists of a single line inscribed on the pedestal of a six-armed idol of Lord Ganesha. The letters used are a special box-shaped variety of Nagari called Chitra-varna developed by scribes, likely Kayasthas; of the later Chandela era; named so because of its elegant appearance.

It reads:

कायस्थ वास्तव्य वंश ठक्कुर श्री अषौ सुत ठक्कुर श्री महिपति पुत्र कीर्त्तिपालेन गणपति कारितः।। सं १३४४

"Kirttipala, the son of Thakur Mahipati and the grandson of Thakur Ashau of the Vastavya (Srivastava) Kayastha clan consecrated the idol of Ganapati in the Vikrama year 1344 (1287 CE)"

1/n The idol is situated near the Tarhaoni gate of the Ajaigarh fort which used to be a stronghold of the Chandelas. Many records from this fort, especially the Tarhaoni gate have been documented by Sir Alexander Cunningham in the 19th century and subsequently by NP Chakravarti, VV Mirashi, RK Dikshit and others in the 20th century. Some how, the aforementioned record seems to have been missed so far. 2/n

~Some Kayastha records from Garhwa fort temple complex~

The Vishnu shrine at Garhwa fort in Prayagraj can be dated back to the Gupta era. Records of several Gupta emperors are known from this site. But the current temple was erected by a Srivastava Kayastha named Thakkura Ranapala. 1/n A temple pillar inscription here records the establishment of Nava-grama, a branch of Bhatta-Grama by Kayastha Thakkura Rana Pala Srivastavya, the son of Kunda Pala in 1199 Vikrama Samvat. The record is inscribed below the image of the Thakkura. As per the local traditions, the founder of the temple was a minister of the local Baghel Raja in the 12th century. The temple is located close to the boundary of theBaghel state of Rewa. 2/n

🧵~Kayasthas in Tibet: Shaping the religious landscape of the region~

In this thread we will explore the role of Kayastha missionaries from early mediaeval eastern India in Tibetan Buddhism.

Pandita Gayadhara, a Kayastha from eastern India, brought the Lamdre teachings to Tibet in the 11th century. He belonged to the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism.

The lamdre method, a meditative system, introduced by Pandita Gayadhara is considered to be the ultimate goal of Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism.

Pictured: Thangka of Pandita Gayadhara from Tibet. 1/n The Lamdre teachings introduced by Pandita Gayadhara were so influential that the the descendant of Genghis Khan and the Yuan emperor of China, Kublai Khan was initiated into this practice by Chogyel Pagpa, a Tibetan master of the Sakya order from the line of Gayadhara in the 13th century.

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🧵~Versions of Ramayana authored by Kayasthas~

The timeless tale of Ramayana has been retold several times over millenia. On the occasion of #Diwali we present to you a thread on versions of the epic authored by Kayasthas in Sanskrit and regional languages.

Pictured: Ram, Sita and Lakshamana in the constitution of India by Nandalal Bose.

1. The Sanskrit text Ramacharitam authored by Sandhyakar Nandin of Bengal in the 12th century is a retelling of Ramayana which uses double entendre to also narrate the biographical sketch of the Pala king Ramapala.

The author was patronised by the Pala king Madanapala. A native of Varendra, ie North Bengal, he belonged to a family of hereditary ministers of the Pala kingdom. His father Prajapati Nandi was the Sandhi-Vigrahika or the Minister of Peace and War of Ramapala.

Ramacharita contains a detailed account of the Varendra rebellion that happened during the reign of Ramapala and as such is considered to be an important historical text. 1/n 2. Rama-Vikrama, another text from 12th century Bengal is a Sanskrit play composed by the Bengali playwright Sagara Nandi. Unfortunately this text is lost and is only known from reference to this work in another text by the author. 2/n

🧵~Kayastha hero memorial inscriptios~

Historically, Kayasthas expanded well beyond their role as record keepers and government servants and also performed military functions. Several hero memorials of Kayastha warriors are known from the mediaeval era, some of which we shall document in this thread.

1. A hero memorial stone from Khajuraho records the military exploits of a Kayastha warrior named Sadha who died in battle. 1/n A Shiva temple was constructed in his memory, which is thought to be the Duladeo temple of Khajuraho. We had posted about this memorial earlier in the thread quoted below. 2/n

https://x.com/historiakayasth/status/1800799345555730706

🧵~Sanskrit poets of the Kayastha caste known from Inscriptions: Part II- Buddhist records~

In this thread we shall document some interesting Buddhist eulogies in Sanskrit composed by Kayastha poets which not only highlight the capabilities of Kayasthas as great Sanskritists but also the social history of Buddhism in early mediaeval India.

1. A Sanskrit Prashasti dated 1176 Vikrama Samvat records the restoration of the Jetavana Vihara at Sahet-Mahet in Sravasti by a Srivastava Kayastha named Vidyadhara. 1/n It was composed by poet Udayi, a Srivastava Kayastha and a kin of Vidyadhara.
The eulogy begins with Salutations to, 'Shakya Sinha' that is lord Buddha and goes on to praise Vidyadhara Srivastava as a 'second Bodhisattava' and his wife Jijja as 'resembling the ocean born Lakshmi.' The record also invokes Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu showcasing the syncretism of mainstream Hinduism and Buddhism cherished by Kayasthas of medieval times.
This is also one of the last known records of Buddhism in northern India. 2/n

🧵 ~Sanskrit poets of the Kayastha caste known from inscriptions: Part I~

Medieval Kayasthas were ardent scholars of Sanskrit. Thus, they feature prominently as composers of Sanskrit eulogies. We shall document some Kayastha poets of high calibre in this thread.

1. The Mandsaur stone slab Inscription of the Naigama family, who served as hereditary viceroys to Aulikaras in the 6th century CE, mention a member of their family named 'Bhagavaddoṣa' who was a skilled poet of Sanskrit and Prakrit. 1/n The verse 17 of this Inscription suggests that he was perhaps one of the most renowned poets of his time, so much so that other poets used to sing his praises in their own poems. The Naigamas are today known as Nigams and constitute one of the 12 subcastes of northern Kayasthas. 2/n

🧵 Curious cases of Kayastha Matrimony: Gleanings from Epigraphs

Elites have practiced intermarriage as a part of diplomatic alliance for long. Royal courtiers too were a part of such alliances.

A Naigama family served the Aulikaras of Malwa as "Rajasthaniyas" or viceroys for several generations between 4th to 6th centuries. They are known from several epigraphical records from southern Rajasthan and Malwa during this period. The stone slab inscription below, from Mandsaur dated to the early 6th century, gives a detailed account of this family and their association with the powerful Aulikaras who defeated the Hunas. 1/n The issuer of this inscription was one Naigama named Nirdosh. The main object of this inscription was to boast about the family's credentials.

Verse 14 of mentions that one member of a preceding generation of this family, Ravikirtti, married a lady named "Bhānuguptā." 2/n