This 🧵 is the story of an American born in 1882. He sailed to India as a Christian missionary.

The hypocrisy he saw unraveled his faith. He abandoned the Church, married an Indian, plunged into Hindu texts.

He became a Hindu, Lala Lajpat Rai's friend, and a freedom fighter. Samuel Evans Stokes, Jr., came into the world in a Quaker Pennsylvania family. His father, an entrepreneur, made a fortune building elevators. Young Samuel grew up wealthy, surrounded by books in a private library. His childhood buzzed with energy—happy, chaotic, and studious.

In Feb 2002, a historic Arabic manuscript from Egypt was accidentally discovered.

Dated ~1035 AD, it mentions India, Hindu kings, scholars & Indian cities. It includes world’s oldest known colored world maps.

What does it say? A 🧵:

1⃣Titled “Kitab Gharaib ....” (“Book of Curiosities ....”), it contains the impressions of 10th- to 11th-century India among Fatimid elites in Egypt and Persia.
2⃣Authored by unknown Ismaili-Shia Muslim under Fatimid rule, the text is error-prone but ambitious.
3⃣Features some of the world’s oldest colored world maps, including a pioneering rectangular map locating China, India, the Middle East, Africa, Europe, with major oceans and rivers.
4⃣About 10% content relates to India. It predates the Delhi Sultanate and accounts like Al-Biruni’s.
5⃣Declares Kannauj (Uttar Pradesh) as the origin of the science of astronomy, with Indians perfecting stellar observation and celestial data tabulation 400 years before the Prophet.
6⃣Marks Multan and Sindh as Fatimid Muslim frontiers, crediting Ismaili missionaries for their conquest.
7⃣Calls India as “al-Hind,” its language as “bi-l-hindiyah” (likely Sanskrit or Hindi), and Greece’s as “bi-l-yunaniyah.” Curiously, it is silent about northern India’s linguistic diversity.
8⃣Labels India, Sri Lanka, Java, and China as “lands of infidels”, of idol-worshippers. Declares South Asia (including Sri Lanka) as the richest place on earth.

Cities and kingdoms:
1⃣Praises Kannauj as a gloriously large capital, with King Nabatah (possibly Nagabhatta of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty) patronizing scholars in Ujjain and Kannauj to study planetary motion. Says the king patronized many Hindu scholars, ordered them to study planets, observe their motions every night, and tabulate the data every day. Says, this scholar-king joined other scholars in their study of the stars.
2⃣Mentions following 10th-century Indian cities: Bhawalpur, Benisar, Ropar, Mathura, Prayag, Benares, Kapilavastu, Pataliputra, and five in Bengal; says, these are connected by commercial roads.
3⃣Says Assam (Qamarupa) is prosperous. Mentions a Hindu kingdom, Lakshmibur, east of Bengal and Assam, possibly Manipur–Tripura–north Myanmar.
4⃣Erroneously describes the Brahmaputra, Ganges, and Indus as a single connected river network that starts in mountains of Tibet and ends in the Indian Ocean; depicts it as connecting the entire country of al-Hind.

Ancient trade routes:
1⃣Prefers the Musk-routes in India over the Silk Route in Central Asia. Discusses two “Musk routes” between India and China—via Assam to South China and across the Himalayas to Tibet.
2⃣Reports regular travel by merchants and monks between Xian, Lhasa, Patna and Kannauj. Sources: (Rapoport and Savage-Smith)
1. An Eleventh-Century Egyptian Guide to the Universe: The Book of Curiosities (2014)
2. Lost Maps of the Caliphs: Drawing the World in Eleventh-Century Cairo (2018)
3. Bodleian Library, UK

Below: a colored world map in this manuscript

Grok 3, launched on Feb 17 2025, is now ranked as the most powerful AI. It has a "Think" mode.

What has Grok 3 learned about Ancient India & Hinduism? Does it mock Hinduism, while refusing to mock others like woke-AIs?

You decide. A 🧵 with Q&A. What is Hinduism?

Grok 3: Hinduism is an ancient Indian religion characterized by a diversity of traditions, beliefs, and practices unified by the concept of dharma (duty, righteousness). It includes the worship of numerous deities like Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi, and emphasizes concepts like karma (action and consequence), samsara (cycle of rebirth), and moksha (liberation from the cycle). Central scriptures include the Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Hinduism is known for its philosophical depth, with schools like Vedanta and Yoga, and its practice involves rituals, meditation, and festivals, reflecting a broad spectrum of spiritual experiences.

Numerous grains, vegetables, fruits, spices etc were discovered in Ancient India. Cuisines were invented. This 🧵 complements those by @ShreeHistory, @MumukshuSavitri and others on foods in Ancient India.

There are four ways to establish what foods and cuisines were known in Ancient India:
1⃣Testimonials. This takes the form "Mughals or Sultans or Europeans or Persians or Greeks or Aryans brought this or that to India", often without any verifiable historical source that states who brought what, when, and from where? These allegations can be misinformation, they are sometimes laced with ad hominem.
2⃣Historic Indian texts and manuscripts are better sources. But at best they are tentative. Because, palm leaf and paper manuscripts degrade with time, so need to be copied. The copying can have errors, omissions, insertions, corruption of the original. More confidence comes when the manuscript is in extinct script or archaic Sanskrit or obsolete Prakrit languages. Also, when we have critical editions from different manuscripts for the same text. We can combine these multiple sources for greater confidence on what foods and cuisines were known in India before the 13th-century.
3⃣Inscriptions on stone, copper plates, temple walls, etc, particularly in historic scripts such as Brahmi, Gupta, Sarada, Grantha, etc. These do not need copying and attempts to modify are easy to spot. Many inscriptions mention foods and cuisines (e.g. recipe for Pongal). Another related and fascinating discovery: some cave paintings and rock art in India includes drawings of seeds and food ingredients (these too are as old as the artwork).
4⃣Archaeo-botany studies. This science has emerged within the last 50 years. Archaeological items sometimes contain grains, stuck or charred remains of food ingredients, seeds, etc. Such items include pottery, pans, wares, remains of foundational consecration inside a lost or ruined temple etc. We can often date these discoveries by C-14, thermo- and other methods. When combined with shape, spectral and other studies of grain, seeds and food remains found with these items by SEM, X-ray, DNA and other advanced methods, we get strong evidence of what foods and cuisines women and men of Ancient India had already discovered and invented. These studies also help objectively identify foods discovered in other ancient cultures, that Indians learned and adopted in creative cuisines.

In this thread (Part 1), I summarize some results from archaeobotany research (#4) from sites dated 3000 BC to 300 AD, all from ancient India. Yes, this includes Harappan and Vedic era sites. Summary: Archaeo-botany research on sites excavated in the last 30 years suggest ancient Indians knew, kept and used a lot of food ingredients in sophisticated cuisines.

ShreeHistory, MumukshuSavitri etc are covering #2 above (please follow them).

In future threads, I will give examples of #3. Best scenario: when literature, inscriptions and archaeo-botany corroborate. Locations: the archaeo-botanical discoveries are from sites all over India: UP, Bihar, Odisha, Bengal, Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, MH, Haryana, Harappan sites in Pakistan, Assam, Nagaland, TN, AP, Karnataka and Kerala. All pre-300 AD.

Sources: Saraswat, Fuller papers

Since Central Asian nations opened up in the 1990s, they became sources of new archaeological discoveries. Buddhist discoveries were expected, but few expected a strong Hindu influence between 1st and 7th century AD or the Sogdian admiration for ancient India.

In this 🧵, some Sogdian-era findings from Tajikstan–Uzbekistan border region:
1⃣ Sogdians loved frescoes and art in their homes and public buildings. These included scenes from Panchatantra and Mahabharata.
2⃣The homes of elites and the site now called "Hall of the Ambassadors" of Panjikant in Tajikstan is full of Indian artwork, particularly Hindu art. These include Hindu gods, goddesses as well as Nana etc. Notably, Zorastrian gods are frequently depicted with Hindu motifs.
3⃣Maria Slautina writes, "When a Sogdian artist had to represent a very distant land, a fairytale land where only marvels are possible, he often chose India".
4⃣The Panjikant and nearby sites such as Samarkand were notable "melting pot" of different Asian cultures before 700 AD, exchanging goods and ideas. This is evidenced by the Hindu scenes presented along with Buddhist, Old Persian, and some from China. The medical literature found is in Sanskrit, written in Brahmi script. This region was on the Silk route frequented by traders and merchants.
5⃣Sogdian inscriptions have recently been discovered in west Kashmir and northwest Pakistan. Sogdians are probably the same as Sulikas (Chulikas) in the Mahabharata, which if true would attest to their ancient connections to India.
6⃣A few scholars had speculated before the 1980s that ancient Chulikas may have become the famous Chalukyas of Karnataka–Telangana region, their only evidence being that the names sound similar. But, recent discoveries suggest that Chalukyas have nothing in common with Sogdians. The Sogdian art is closer to Hindu art found in Kashmir–Gandhara.
7⃣Sogdian culture and art ended abruptly around 722 AD, after the region was conquered by an Islamic army. The artwork was mutilated, the wealthy towns plundered and destroyed. Here are some scenes from Mahabharata found near Panjikent. These are scenes from the Virata Parva. Panels show the exile of Pandavas, Arjuna's skills, the gambling scene, etc.

Emperor Ashoka had already met monk Samanera Nigrodha & converted to Buddhism 4+ years before he attacked Kalinga in 261 BC, as @MumukshuSavitri notes.

#Ashoka was a Hindu before 265 BC. His life's first 36 years are less discussed. It offers insights into ancient Hinduism.

1⃣Ashoka influence on global Buddhism was extraordinary. It is therefore not surprising that his early life is found in Buddhist texts. Written centuries after his death, these Ashoka legends vary between Mahayana and Theravada Buddhist traditions. If we distill the shared parts and read Ashoka-related inscriptions, here is what we learn about his early Hindu life and Hinduism:
2⃣Ashoka's mom was a Hindu Brahmin, and her father approved his daughter to be the wife of Ashoka's dad Bindusara, a Kshatriya. Thus, Hindus married across caste in ancient India.
3⃣Chandragupta, the grandfather of Ashoka, was the emperor during Ashoka's first 5 years. His father Emperor Bindusara was a very busy man, ruling over a large empire. Ashoka was raised by his Hindu mother.
4⃣After "upanayana" initiation, Ashoka mastered "reading, writing, three Vedas, philosophy, finance, weapons and art of war, politics, and (Hindu) sastras".
5⃣Ashoka spent early teenage years in Taxila, one of several education centers in ancient India. Archaeological excavations at Taxila have revealed terracotta art of Hindu gods and goddesses, along with one of the oldest known pillar temples (per John Marshall). Buddhist monuments were added to Taxila later.
6⃣Ashoka moved to Ujjain. He (Kshatriya) met Devi Seth in Vidisha, the daughter of a banker-merchant (Vaishya). They fell in love, and together had a son and a daughter in Ujjain. Once again, Ashoka's life confirms that caste was not an issue for ancient Hindus.
7⃣In 1976, two Brahmi inscriptions were discovered in Saru Maru caves near Narmada river (about 50 km south of Bhopal). One says "Piyadasi (Ashoka) and Devi came here for a pleasure trip". The other inscription is a minor edict. Saru Maru cave is a hike over a scenic trail. This inscription suggests that Hindus were open and accepted such romantic companionship in ancient India.
8⃣Ashoka was anointed as the next Emperor in 270 or 269 BC. He met monk Nigrodha about 265 BC and converted to Buddhism. Little is known of Devi's life after Ujjain, except that her son and daughter took the name of Malinda and Sanghamitra, received "Pabbaja ordination" (a Buddhist ceremony for monastic life).
9⃣Ashoka's edicts are interesting to compare with early Buddhist texts in Pali. These texts are about Buddha's spiritual sermons on rebirth-dukkha-causality-nirvana etc, rules for monks and such. But Ashoka's edicts talk about other cultural values such as "respect your elders, teachers, etc" – likely values he inherited from his Hindu mother. These values are already taught and celebrated in the Vedic literature, and is also found in numerous later era Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts. Sources:
1. N Lahiri (2015), Ashoka in Ancient India, Harvard Univ Press
2. H Falk (1997), The Preamble at Panguraria, Indica et Tibetica
3. J Marshall (1951), Taxila in 3 volumes, ASI

In 1940, evidence for ancient Varanasi was accidentally discovered.
A dig for a railway project stumbled into ruins of Kashi in Rajghat area. Excavations over 1950–1970 forced revision to colonial era speculations. Ancient Kashi was predominantly Hindu, co-existing with Buddhists & Jains. Evidence in this 🧵.
Here is a summary of findings from the excavations:
1⃣Around 200 BC, ancient Kashi existed at the sangam of Varuna and Ganga, closer to Sarnath (5 km).
2⃣Ancient Kashi had well laid out houses and streets by about 100 BC.
3⃣Kashi kingdom & its residents completed a water project before 100 AD. They built a massive mud rampart and moat, channeling Varuna waters around the town (this may have also provided drinking water).
4⃣The excavation found a large temple hall supported on 12 pillars. The layout is typical of Hindu temples found near Vidisha, etc. No motifs typical of Buddhist or Jain found. We cannot be sure it was Hindu either, because no motifs of Hindus found.
5⃣Terracotta items, seals and sealings were found from Period II and III (200 BC – 300 AD). These show a mix of Buddhist and Hindu icons. Some Dharmachakras. Some Garuda. Most common discoveries had Nandi and Trishul.
6⃣Between 300 and 1200 AD, the seals and other items are mostly Hindu, with occasional Buddhist items. After 1200 AD, only items of either Hindu or Muslim origin were found (e.g. Hindu temple parts, Akbar's coins etc)
7⃣We can, with confidence, determine the likely centuries for the seals and sealings. Because they have inscriptions either in early Brahmi, late Brahmi, Gupta-Brahmi and other scripts. The Kushan and Gupta era seals and sealings are predominantly Hindus.

The Rajghat discoveries eliminate the likelihood that Hindus converted any pre-existing Buddhist or Jain monuments into Hindu temples after 300 AD.
Note: In archaeology, and science, "absence of evidence" does not mean "evidence of absence".
Example evidence from Rajghat follow. For more evidence, please see the hoards preserved in NMMA museums in India (links below). Prior to the discovery of Rajghat archaeological site in 1940, we had textual evidence. However, anyone can misrepresent, misinterpret or distort texts over time.
Buried sites, inscriptions in ancient script + ancient fonts, etc are persuasive evidence.

Gyanvapi mosque & other monuments were studied by James Prinsep. He lived in Varanasi over 1820s – 1830s. His sketches & notes suggest the current "Wuzu tank" was built from a mandapa.
Prinsep is remembered for methodically deciphering the Brahmi script of Ashoka edicts. (🧵) James Prinsep sketches suggest there were a lot more temple ruins near Gyanvapi mosque in 1820s than today. Comparing the cover page above and the one below, we can see (1) desecrated Nandi, (2) pillar part, (3) desecrated statue, (4) bricked door and two tombs in his sketch.

There were at least two times in modern history when Western govts and media fondly approved Ayodhya, Rama, Krishna, etc.

During World War 1 and 2, both sides created propaganda posters to persuade Hindus to fight their wars.

Here is a WW-1 clip (author: Shahid Hussain): Also: "These devils (the Germans) are spreading misery everywhere in the world [...]. They want to conquer the whole world as Ravan wanted to conquer the whole of India. And indeed the truth is that he managed to abduct Maha Rani Sita, the symbol of purity for a few days."

Sikhs reclaimed Rama-janambhoomi in Ayodhya:
1⃣ 25 Nihang Sikhs enter Babri Masjid in 1858
2⃣ Write Rama with coal on the walls
3⃣ Build hawan, place an image of Rama & Guru Gobind Singh, offer puja
what else did the Sikhs do for Hindu god Rama in British India? (a thread) After reclaiming it in 1858, Sikhs added structures, guarded the Rama puja hawan, calling it Ramachabutra and Sita Rasoi inside Babri masjid premises. Outside they hoist a Sikh flag (nishan).

India has seen numerous riots between 1950 and 2001. These have led to 1000s dead, alleged "police support, pogrom". Have you ever seen BBC documentary on these like BBC's 2023 Modi Question?

In this thread, lets look at riots documented in scholarly sources, newspapers, etc. For this thread, we set aside the tragic deaths of tens of thousands in communal violence before 1947 under British India watch.
Let us also set aside the violence during the 1947 partition that saw 0.25 – 2 million deaths on West Pakistan – India – East Pakistan borders.

Thought in Hindu culture
1. Sanskrit texts debate how we know (Pramana). They discuss the sastra reason, logic, and discerning truth and misinformation.
2. These ideas are found in theoretical texts and popular epics, fables, mores of Hindu culture.
A thread (1/n): 3. Vedic texts such as Taittiriya Aranyaka already list four means to correct knowledge. Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Advaita etc have a corpus on Pramana.
4. This thread focuses on six: perception, inference, testimony, comparison, circumstantial implication, and negative proof.

1. BBC, once again, is attracting attention with another controversial documentary series.
2. Over the last 60 years, BBC programming has typically taken the side of one minority. It has been censored by and expelled from India by Nehru-Gandhi dynasty govt. When? – read on. 3. BBC began serving the British Empire in 1933. It was UK's propaganda tool during WW2. All Indian Radio was set up by BBC's Lionel Fielden in 1935. (Simon Potter)
4. BBC has almost always criticized Hindus and its cherished leaders ever since it began services in the colony.

1. Sanskrit manuscripts contain a treasure of information about ancient Hindu culture and the diversity of thought they accepted.
2. Consider the ideas about the "shape of earth" as found in Hindu texts. 3. Puranas include multiple views. They see earth as round, call it bhumandala. But round can be a flat round disc, hollow bowl, donut, sphere, etc.
4. Round disc is most common in Puranas. Vishnudharmottara Purana speaks of earth as a hemisphere.