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Madison Square Garden - Wikipedia

Madison Square is formed by the intersection of 5th Avenue and Broadway at 23rd Street in Manhattan. It was named after James Madison, fourth President of the United States. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_S…

Two venues called Madison Square Garden were located just northeast of the square, the original Garden from 1879 to 1890, and the second Garden from 1890 to 1925. The first, leased to P. T. Barnum, had no roof and was inconvenient to use during inclement weather, so it was

demolished after 11 years. The second was designed by noted architect Stanford White.

The new building was built by a syndicate which included J. P. Morgan, Andrew Carnegie, P. T. Barnum, Darius Mills, James Stillman and W. W. Astor.

The area where Madison Square is now had

been a swampy hunting ground crossed by Cedar Creek – which was later renamed Madison Creek – from east to west, and first came into use as a public space in 1686. It was a Potter's Field in the 1700s.

A potter's field, paupers' grave or common grave is a place for the burial of

unknown, unclaimed or indigent people. "Potter's field" is of Biblical origin, referring to Akeldama (meaning field of blood in Aramaic), stated to have been purchased, with the coins that had been paid to Judas Iscariot for his identification of Jesus, after Judas' suicide, by

the high priests of Jerusalem.

Madison Square Park, Washington Square Park and Bryant Park in New York City originated as potter's fields.

There was a United States Army arsenal there from 1811 until 1825 when it became the New York House of Refuge for the Society for the

Protection of Juvenile Delinquents, for children under sixteen committed by the courts for indefinite periods

The New York House of Refuge was the first juvenile reformatory established in the United States. The reformatory was opened in 1824 on the Bowery in Manhattan, New

York City, destroyed by a fire in 1839, and relocated first to Twenty-Third Street and then, in 1854, to Randalls Island.

The islands were acquired by Wouter Van Twiller, Director General of the Dutch colony of New Netherland, in July 1637.

In the mid-19th century, both

Randalls and Wards Islands, like nearby Blackwell's Island, became home to a variety of social facilities. Randalls housed an orphanage, poor house, burial ground for the poor, "idiot" asylum, homeopathic hospital and rest home for Civil War veterans, and was also site of the

New York House of Refuge, a reform school completed in 1854 for juvenile delinquents or juveniles adjudicated as vagrants. Between 1840 and 1930, Wards island was used for:

•Burial of hundreds of thousands of bodies relocated from the Madison Square and Bryant Park

graveyards
•The State Emigrant Refuge, a hospital for sick and destitute immigrants, opened in 1847, the biggest hospital complex in the world during the 1850s
•The New York City Asylum for the Insane, opened around 1863
•Manhattan Psychiatric Center (incorporating the

Asylum for the Insane), operated by New York State when it took over the immigration and asylum buildings in 1899. With 4,400 patients, it was the largest psychiatric institution in the world.

The Manhattan Psychiatric Center is a New York-state run psychiatric hospital on

Wards Island in New York City.

The building strongly resembles that of the Creedmoor Psychiatric Center in Queens.

The hospital's name derives from the Creeds, a family that previously farmed the site. The local railroad station on a line that ran from Long Island City to

Bethpage took the name Creedmoor, apparently from the phrase “Creed's Moor,” describing the local geography,

In the early 1870s, New York State purchased land from the Creeds for use by the National Guard and by the National Rifle Association (NRA) as a firing range.

In 1912,

the Farm Colony of Brooklyn State Hospital was opened, with 32 patients, at Creedmoor by the Lunacy Commission of New York State.

Dr. Lauretta Bender, child neuropsychiatrist, has been reported as practicing there in the 1950s and 1960s.

Bender also served as the head of the

children's psychiatric service at Bellevue Hospital for 21 years starting in 1934. In 1954, she testified at the Senate Subcommittee of Juvenile Delinquency hearings on the effects of crime and horror comic books as a medical expert for National Comics (now DC comics) with a job

as an advisor for the company.

Bender completed internships and residencies at Billings Hospital of the University of Chicago, the Boston Psychopathic Hospital, the University of Amsterdam, and the Johns Hopkins University Hospital, held a Rockefeller Traveling Fellowship that

took her to Holland. When she returned to the United States she worked at the Boston Psychopathic Hospital.

Bender met Paul Schilder M.D., Ph.D. (1886–1940) at Johns Hopkins Hospital while writing a publication with him.

Bender began working at Bellevue Hospital in 1930 after

she relocated there with Schilder. In 1934 she was awarded the position of senior psychiatrist at the Children's Psychiatric Division in 1934. She was in this position for 21 years.

Bender was considered an expert in the psychology of African American children because the

majority of the children at Bellevue were African American. Although she documented race when conducting her research, she often divided the differences in race into two categories; Functional (significant differences that influence behavior) and Non-functional (differences have

no significant impact on behavior).

Bender diagnosed many children with "childhood Schizophrenia", and sought to treat these patients. It is important to note that with more knowledge, clinicians today would most likely diagnose these children with developmental or behavioral

disorders.
In an attempt to treat those patients diagnosed with childhood schizophrenia, Bender employed electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) after finding that the practice was successful in other applications.

In an attempt to alleviate schizophrenic symptoms in children, Bender

also used lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD 25). Many psychiatrists at this time were experimenting with LSD as a way to treat schizophrenia, as there were no psychotropic medications invented at this time. An example of another controversial treatment for schizophrenia during this

time was called Insulin-Shock and Metrazol treatments. Patient were given large amounts of Insulin in order to induce insulin shock, then given Metrazol to induce epileptic convulsions. The use of ECT in psychiatric treatment became less and less after the invention of

psychotropic medications.
Arthur Sackler completed his residency in psychiatry at the Creedmoor Psychiatric Center. From 1949 to 1954, he was director of research at Creedmoor Institute for Psychobiological Studies.

All three Sackler brothers studied in Scotland, became

psychiatrists, and joined the research staff at Creedmoor.

They had a friend and collaborator, director Johan H. W. Van Ophuijsen, who was described by Arthur Sackler as "Freud's favorite disciple."

In 1951, the three brothers and Van Ophuijsen published a summary of their

work, which became known as the "Sackler method."

Human subject research, which was stopped for the most part after World War II, did not yet have the oversight of the Nuremberg Code and later the Declaration of Helsinki and the Belmont Report. The Sacklers sought to find a

substitute for what could be relatively intrusive electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). They treated with histamine persons who had schizophrenia, persons who had bipolar disorder then termed manic depression, and persons with involutional psychosis, now an unrecognized illness

somewhat like depression.

With the Sackler's and medical advertising agency William Douglas McAdams Inc help, the pharmaceutical giant Pfizer, previously a chemical manufacturer, began its business in prescription drugs.

Through direct marketing to physicians during the 1960s,

he popularized dozens of medicines including Betadine, Senaflax, Librium, and Valium.

Sackler is credited with helping to racially integrate New York City's first blood banks.

Sackler built and contributed to many scientific institutions, throughout the 1970s and 1980s. His

notable contributions included:
•The Sackler School of Medicine at Tel Aviv University (1972)
•The Sackler Institute of Graduate Biomedical Science (now the Vilcek Institute of Graduate Biomedical Sciences) at New York University (1980)
•The Arthur M. Sackler

Science Center at Clark University (1985)
•The Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences (now the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences) at Tufts University (1980)
•The Arthur M. Sackler Center for Health Communications, also at Tufts University (1986)

In 1952,

Sackler arranged financing for his brothers to purchase the Purdue-Frederick Company. Purdue came to sell practical over-the-counter products like the antiseptic Betadine, the laxative Senokot, and earwax remover Cerumenex. The company also sold MS Contin, or morphine with

time-release properties, for which the patent was to expire in the late 1980s. Following Arthur's death in 1987, his option on one third of that company was sold by his estate to his brothers Mortimer and Raymond, who owned the separate company named Purdue Pharma and used

Purdue-Frederick as a holding company.

Eight years after Arthur's death, Purdue began selling OxyContin, about 1.5 times the strength of morphine, under the direction of his brothers. That company pleaded guilty in 2007 and was fined $640 million for misbranding OxyContin.

Critics of the Sackler family and Purdue contend that the same marketing techniques used when Arthur consulted to pharmaceutical companies selling non-opioid medications were later abused in the marketing of OxyContin by his brothers and his nephew, Richard Sackler,

contributing to the opioid epidemic. According to a quote in The Guardian, “This is essentially a crime family … drug dealers in nice suits and dresses.”

Senator Estes Kefauver's subcommittee examined the pharmaceutical industry in 1959. He felt that Arthur Sackler possessed

an "integrated" empire of drug discovery and manufacture, drug marketing and advertising, and medical publications explicitly for promoting drug sales.

He stopped investigating Sackler in mid-1960, and went on to sponsor the Kefauver Harris Amendment which improved FDA drug

oversight in 1962.

Carey Estes Kefauver (July 26, 1903 – August 10, 1963) was an American politician from Tennessee.

In May 1963, Kefauver's subcommittee concluded that within monopolized U.S. industries no real price competition existed anymore and also recommended that

General Motors be broken up into competing firms.
Kefauver's Antitrust and Monopoly Subcommittee also held hearings on the pharmaceutical industry between 1959 and 1963 that led to enactment of his most famous legislative achievement, the Kefauver-Harris Drug Act of 1962, after

Kefauver expressed shock about the excess profits that U.S. drug companies were taking in at the expense of U.S. consumers.

These positions made him even more unpopular with his state party's machine than ever before, especially after fellow Tennessee Senator Albert Gore Sr.,

Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, and he became the only three southern Senators to not sign the so-called Southern Manifesto in 1956.

Kefauver also led hearings that targeted indecent publications and pornography. Among his targets were pin-ups,

including Bettie Page, and the magazines that featured them.

In 1950, Kefauver headed a U.S. Senate committee investigating organized crime. The committee, officially known as the Senate Special Committee to Investigate Crime in Interstate Commerce, was popularly known as the

Kefauver committee or the Kefauver hearings.

Many of the witnesses were high-profile crime bosses, including such well-known names as Willie Moretti, Joe Adonis, and Frank Costello, the latter making himself famous by refusing to allow his face to be filmed during his

questioning and then staging a much-publicized walkout.

The committee's hearings, which were televised live, just as many Americans were first buying televisions, made Kefauver nationally famous and introduced many Americans to the concept of a criminal organization known as

the Mafia for the first time.

In the 1952 presidential election, Kefauver ran for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination. Campaigning in his coonskin cap, often by dogsled, Kefauver won in an electrifying victory in the New Hampshire primary, defeating President

Harry S. Truman, the sitting president of the United States. Truman then withdrew his bid for re-election.

Kefauver eventually lost the nomination to Stevenson, the choice of the Democratic Party political bosses.

Stevenson lost the general election in November to General

Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican nominee, in a landslide.

1962, Kefauver, who had become known to the public at large as the chief enemy of crooked businessmen in the Senate, introduced legislation that would eventually pass into law as the Kefauver-Harris Drug Control Act.

This bill, which Kefauver dubbed his "finest achievement" in consumer protection, imposed controls on the pharmaceutical industry that required that drug companies disclose to doctors the side-effects of their products, allow their products to be sold as generic drugs after

having held the patent on them for a certain period of time.

On August 8, 1963, Kefauver suffered what was reported as a "mild" heart attack on the floor of the Senate while attempting to place an antitrust amendment into a NASA appropriations bill which would have required

companies benefiting financially from the outcome of research subsidized by NASA, to reimburse NASA for the cost of the research. Two days after the attack, Kefauver died in his sleep in Bethesda Naval Hospital of a ruptured aortic aneurysm.

There was some speculation that

his widow Nancy Kefauver might stand for election to her late husband's Senate seat in 1964, but she quashed such notions early on. Tennessee Governor Frank Clement appointed Herbert S. Walters to the seat instead.
In November 1963, President Kennedy named Nancy Kefauver to

be the first head of the new Art in Embassies Program—Kennedy's last presidential appointment.

As teenagers, Allen Gore and Cordell Hull were friends.

Hull was the underlying force and architect in the creation of the United Nations, as recognized by the 1945 Nobel Prize for

Peace, an honor for which Franklin D. Roosevelt nominated him. During World War II, Hull and Roosevelt had worked toward the development of a world organization to prevent a third World War. Hull and his staff drafted the "Charter of the United Nations" in mid-1943.
Al Gore Sr

was born in Granville, Tennessee, the third of five children of Margie Bettie (née Denny) and Allen Arnold Gore.

After leaving Congress, Gore Sr. resumed the practice of law and also taught law at Vanderbilt University. He continued to represent the Occidental Petroleum where

he became vice president and member of the board of directors. Gore became chairman of Island Creek Coal Co., Lexington, Kentucky, an Occidental subsidiary, in 1972, and in his last years operated Gore Antique Mall, an antiques store in Carthage.

In 1998, the U.S. government

sold the Elk Hills Oil Field to Occidental for $3.65 billion after an auction process that involved selling the field in segments and offering it to multiple bidders.

In 2019, Occidental Petroleum acquired Anadarko Petroleum inheriting a significant legacy of environmental

infractions.

The deal was clinched as investor and Berkshire Hathaway CEO Warren Buffett pledged $10 billion to finance the deal in exchange for 100,000 shares of cumulative perpetual preferred stock with a value of $100,000 per share.

1973: During détente in July 1972,

Armand Hammer negotiated a twenty-year agreement with Brezhnev of the Soviet Union that was signed by Hammer in April 1973 in which the Hammer-controlled firms Occidental Petroleum and Tower International would export to the Soviet Union phosphate.

To affect the trading of

sheet metal from Eaton's Republic Steel in Cleveland for chrome ore primarily from the Kazakh SSR in the Soviet Union in 1954 during the United States' McCarthyism era, Eaton's son Cyrus Eaton Jr., established the Canadian firm Tower International in Montreal because direct trade

between the United States and the Soviet Union was unthinkable.

Cyrus' uncle was Charles Aubrey Eaton who led a Cleveland congregation that included Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller Sr. who Cyrus Eaton met in 1901 when he was 17 and later became his protégé after Rockefeller

hired the young Eaton to be a messenger in Rockefeller's private telegraph room.

Tower International would export to the Soviet Union, and later Russia, phosphate, which Occidental mined in northern Florida, in return for the Soviet Union, and later Russia, exporting to Hammer's

firms natural gas that would be converted into ammonia, potash, and urea. This “fertilizer deal” was to continue until Hammer's 100th birthday in 1998. JaxPort at the Port of Jacksonville in Jacksonville, Florida, was the United States port through which this trade occurred.