Mahmud of Ghazni is a blip in Indian history, glorified beyond his actual contribution. Take for instance, Toramana or Kanishka. They were far better than Mahmud but we don't read much about them. Anyways, below is an account of Mahmud from Tarikh-I-Sultan Mahmud-I-Ghaznavi,
a 19th Century book on him. Note that this account is going to be mostly an Islamic version and I will try to give the Indian perspective wherever possible. If you notice, there won't be much in his account except his dealings with the Shahis of Kabul.
Because Mahmud’s mother was the daughter of a noble in Zabul, Mahmud is sometimes called Zabali. Due to a dream in which Sabuktegin saw a tree encompassing the whole world just before his son’s death, his father named him Mahmud(the fortunate one).
But, he handed over the power to Mahmud’s younger brother Ismail, who was defeated in a civil war and was imprisoned for life by Mahmud. Immediately after taking the throne, Mahmud started showing his imperial ambitions - Mahmud sent a messenger to Samanid Amir Mansur at Bokhara
to express his dissatisfaction over handing over the Governorship of Khorasan to Baktozan. The Amir rejected the claim and asked him to be content with Balkh, Tarmiz and Herat. Mahmud tried to bribe Amir Mansur but Mansur made the ambassador his minister.
Mahmud decided to march on Nishapur to annex Khorasan but Mansur sent an army to stop Mahmud and Mahmud retreated to Murghab. Incidentally, at the same time, Baktozan, conspired with Faik, the Governor of Samarqand, blinded Mansur and made Mansur’s brother Abd-ul-Malik the ruler
and fearing rebellion, fled to Merv where Mahmud caught up with them and defeated them. Faik took Abd-ul-Malik and left for Bokhara while Baktozan fled to Nishapur, and sometime after he again went to Bokhara to collect his dispersed army.
The kingdom is at it's death throes, Faik fell ill and died. At the same time, Ilak Khan or the Karakhanid King attacked the Samnids - Abd-ul-Malik is killed and with him, ended the Samanids. He allowed Mahmud to take Khorasan and the Caliph sent a robe of honour to Mahmud.
In 999, Mahmud marched upon India for the first time and returned with plunder. Once back, he sent an embassy for marriage of one of his princess to further cement the alliance with Ilak Khan. In 1001, Mahmud marched on Peshawar with 10000 troops.
Though the Tarikh mentions Jaipal brought with him, 12000 horse, 30000 infantry and 300 elephants, other evidence hints that Jaipal hastily marched with whatever he was able to lay his hands on and is considered to be at a disadvantage even in number of troops.
Jaipal was defeated and “captured with 15 men, who were some his sons and some his relations, and he killed 5000 Hindus and brought back much plunder. And he took from the necks of those prisoners, 16 necklaces and people fixed the price of each necklace at 1,80,000 gold mohurs.”
Phanda was taken next and Jaipal, who was insulted by being displayed in a slave market was released after a ransom was paid for him. Jaipal soon committed suicide. In 1003, Mahmud was in Seistan again.
In 1006, he marched on Bhatia, whose ruler Baji Rao submitted neither to Mahmud nor to Jaipal. The first four days, Baji Rao was winning the war till Muhammad’s personal guard joined the fight. Baji Rao, who escaped the fort was surrounded in a forest committed suicide.
Because Baji Rao evaded capture and conversion, in anger, Mahmud massacred all his followers and plundered the camp. In 1007, he attacked Multan held by Ab-ul-Fateh, whose grandfather was a vassal to the Sultan’s father.
The Muslim chronicles wrote, Anandapal stopped him in Margalla Pass, but was defeated and Anandapal fled to Kashmir, though it’s impossible that Mahmud would have advanced as far as Sodra on Chenab, with Multan ready to cut him off.
Multan surrendered after a siege and at the same time, Arsalan Jazib, his Governor of Herat sent a message to Mahmud of Ilak Khan’s invasion. Mahmud made Governor, Sakpal, who was the son of a raja(Jayapala?) of Hindustan who was converted to Islam and rushed back.
Ilak Khan’s commander Siyawashtagin invaded Khorasan supported by chiefs who rebelled against Mahmud and appointed Jafartagin as Governor in the capital of Balkh. Arsalan Jazib fled to Ghazni. Mahmud marched on Balkh, Jafartagin fled to Tirmiz.
Arsilan Jazib was ordered to march on Siyuwashtagin. Ilak Khan, with additional reinforcements faced Mahmud on the river Jainhun. Again, the battle was brutal and Mahmud was losing, when Mahmud had to personally intervene to change the tide of the battle.
Mahmud tried to pursue Ilak Khan but it’s possible his strength was not enough. Besides, there came a news that one Absar(Sakpal) rebelled against Mahmud and reverted back to his old religion. He was captured and imprisoned till death. An indemnity of four lakhs was imposed.
In 1008, he marched again on India, reason being, punish Anandpal for being disrespectful in the Multan campaign. Anandpal collected a coalition “to such an extent that the Rajas of Ujjain and Gwalior and Kalinjar and Kanauj and Delhi and Ajmir,
all came to his assistance and started for the plains of Peshawar with their respective armies. Forty days they lay in face of the Sultan, but no one of either army advanced to battle. The infidels of Kakhar also joined them in that expedition.”
Again, an exaggeration. While the chronicler refused to mention Anandpal’s help during Ilak Khan’s campaign, he tried to present Mahmud in a positive light while he actually attacked Anandapala for no reason.
In fact, the suddenness of the attack means Anandpal didn’t have time to collect an army, forget a coalition. What we would have seen is the last ounces of strength of the Shahis. Mahmud almost lost the war and was about to flee when Anandpal’s elephant got scared and ran away.
That Mahmud captured only 30 elephants in the retreat of Shahi armies is a clear proof that Shahis didn’t have the numbers to put a serious dent. One can expect the losses of both the armies to be even – that Shahis lost 8000 in flight and Mahmud lost 4000 in a single attack
by Anandpal’s troops further establishes that.
After the war, he plundered Nagarkot(Bhimkot) in the vicinity and attained much loot. Hindus called it Makhzan-ul-Asnam or the '' Treasury of the Idols ". Since the army was in the field with Anandpal, there was not much resistance
After the war, he plundered Nagarkot(Bhimkot) in the vicinity and attained much loot. Hindus called it Makhzan-ul-Asnam or the '' Treasury of the Idols ". Since the army was in the field with Anandpal, there was not much resistance
and “Seven lakhs of gold mohurs and eight hundred maunds of gold and silver vessels and two hundred maunds pure gold and two thousand maunds of virgin silver and twenty maunds of jewels which had been collected there since the time of Bhim fell to the Sultan”.
In 1010, Mahmud arranged a public display of Shahi plunder and distributed a part of it to the people. One should look at this, not as piety, but buying loyalty of the people. Remember, Shahis were pushed out of Afghanistan only by 987 and they still would have commanded loyalty.
In 1011, he attacked Ghor. After six hours of fight, Mahmud was forced to retreat. His troops regrouped and caught the Ghurid troops chasing them unawares. The Ghurid king Muhammad-Ben-Suri was captured but he committed suicide.
While some accounts mention Mahmud converted Ghor to Islam, others mention it happened during the reign of Caliph Ali, which, clearly is an absurdity. In the same year, he plundered Multan again – those who didn’t subscribe to his version of Islam were slaughtered and
Amir Daud-ben-Nasir was captured and incarcerated in Ghor where he died. In 1012, he decided to plunder Thanesar and asked Anandpal to help him. Anandpal tried to dissuade him through bribes and extra tribute. Mahmud rejected the offer and the Raja of Delhi tried to create
a coalition but Mahmud reached there before the army took shape. The temple was plundered and Mahmud “sent (the idol) Jagsum to Ghazni (with orders that) it should be placed in the road, so that every one might pass over it and trample it under his feet”.
“In one temple a piece of ruby was found, which in weight was 450 miakals, and no one had ever seen or heard of such a piece.” Mahmud wanted to attack Delhi but fearing the defences and the intention of Anandpal, returned back. 2,00,000 were taken as slaves to Afghanistan.
In 1013, Altuntash, the Commander-in-Chief, and Arsalan Jazib conquered Gharjistan and captured the ruler. Mahmud wrote a letter to Caliph Abbasi asking him to surrender all the cities of Khorasan. An incapable Caliph had to accept.
After that, he demanded Samarqand and the Caliph rejected. Mahmud threatened to attack the Caliph but had to back down due to pressure by Ulema after Caliph sent a letter. In 1014, he put Nauduna under siege. At this, time Anandpal died.
His son, who was grandson of Jaipal and was Governor of Lahore, had not the strength to fight him, (and) leaving few warriors in Nauduna, went to Kashmir. After the fort was taken, he went after Jaipal’s grandson who escaped elsewhere.
In 1016, Mahmud invaded Kashmir and put Lohkot under siege, but the worsening winter and reinforcements to the fort forced him to retreat amidst much losses.
Ab-uI-Abbas Mamun, King of Khoarazm asked the hand of Mahmud’s sister and received it. But, in 1017, he was killed by rebels. Mahmud sent an army under Muhammad Tai but the army was routed by Khamar Tash, the head of the rebels.
Mahmud sent a larger army, which captured Khamar Tash and had to fight his way till Nishapur, when his troops were besieged in Hazarasp. He made Altum Tash the King of Khoarazm and returned. On return, he made his son Masud the governor of Herat and another son Muhammad, Korkan.
In 1019, Mahmud marched upon Kannauj “with a lakh of sawars and twenty thousand infantry, who had assembled with the intention of a holy war from Turkestan, from Mawar-ul-Nahr and from Khorasan and from other countries”. The Raja of Kannauj surrendered and converted to Islam.
A huge tribute was paid to buy peace. The next fort was Mahawan, ruled by Kalchand who committed suicide when he was about to be captured. Again, much plunder was received there. Someone told Mahmud of Mathura – though it was under the Raja of Delhi, the city was unprotected.
The city was looted and much plunder collected. Mahmud wrote in a letter on Mathura, ‘In this city there are a thousand buildings with foundations (as strong) as the sky and most of them are built of marble, and there are so many idol-houses in them that they are beyond counting;
and if any one should desire to build such buildings, then if he were to spend a lakh of gold mohurs on expert builders, he would (hardly) complete it in two hundred years.’ It is said that he found amongst them “five idols of pure gold, in the eye-sockets of which they put
sapphires (and) all those sapphires were valued at fifty thousand rupees. There was another idol of gold in which they had inserted a plate of emeralds, which in weight} was 400 miskals.
When they had broken up that) idol eight thousand three hundred miskals of gold were got from it, and of idols of silver, great and small, there were more than one hundred, (and) when they broke them all up they loaded a hundred camels with them.”
Thus, we will see that Mahmud's career is only about protecting his Northern territories and raids in the south - for plunder. Next was the Fort of Mauj, which was well provisioned. The defenders came out of the fort for a final charge after the women and infirm committed Jauhar.
Then, he attacked Chandpal's fort. Chandpal saw the futility of fight and fled to the mountains with the treasury and his family. Mahmud looted whatever he was able to lay hands on. Next was Chand Rai’s kingdom. He too fled but his elephant was captured.
Legend says that the elephant, which Mahmud coveted, fled Chand Rai’s camp and landed in Mahmud’s camp. Mahmud named it Khodadad (i.e., God-given). The total plunder of the campaign was 20000 gold pieces, 50000 slaves and 350 elephants, and there was much other property.
Then, Mahmud built a mosque in marble, named it Musjid-i-jami and a school associated with it. Seeing Mahmud, many nobles started doing the same – that can be seen as the actual seed of permanent conversion in the area.
Legends say Mahmud brought a bird which looks like a dove from Hindustan which trembles restlessly and sheds tears involuntarily when poisoned food is place near to it. He sent it along with other presents to Caliph Al-Kadr-o-Biliah of Baghdad.
Along with it, he sent a list of his conquests, which the Caliph made read in public. He also found a stone in India, which when scraped in water and placed, will heal any wound. In 1022, he sent Abu Muhammad Nasahi, the head of the Qazis to Hajj.
The caravan was stopped by a desert tribe which refused them path. Nasahi tried to bribe them but they wouldn’t budge – simply put, the bribe indicated treasures the party had and chief of the tribe Hamad-bin-Ali coveted the whole. He was killed in the skirmish and his men fled.
In the same year, Mahmud learnt that the Raja of Kannauj was killed by Nanda, he marched on Nanda with a larger army. But, his army’s path was blocked by the grandson of Jaipal on the river Jun. But, a contingent led by eight chosen slaves of Mahmud defeated him and
a nearby city was plundered with destruction of the temples. The reality, in fact, was, Mahmud heard of preparations of a counter invasion of his territories and rushed to stop it. Mahmud then marched on Kalinjar, with Nanda facing him with 36,000 mounted men and 45,000 footmen
and 640 elephants. Mahmud refused to engage and Nanda retreated suddenly. Once Mahmud confirmed there is no ambush, he plundered the remnants of the camp. Fearful of armies cutting his supply routes, Mahmud returned back without waiting.
On reaching back, Mahmud got a news that Kirat and Nardin which are within the limits of Hindustan rejected Islam. Kirat was taken first and Mahmud sent Hajib Ali, the son of Arsalan Jazib to Nardin. The place was taken and plundered – much property and slaves was acquired.
The main temple is believed to be 40000 years old and was destroyed. Mahmud left the place under the command of Ali, the son of Kadar Saljuki and returned to Ghazni. In late 1022, he started for Kashmir and besieged Lohkot. Defeated, he sent his army to Lahore to plunder.
The grandson of Jaipal became weak by then and he fled to the Raja of Ajmer. He published Khutba in his name and returned back to Ghazni. In 1023, Mahmud decided to go to the country of Nanda. He blockaded Gwalior. After four days, the king offered 35 elephants to lift the siege.
He went to Kalinjar from there. Nanda sent 300 elephants as an offering in peace but when Mahmud accepted the offer, he let loose the elephants in the plain without attendants but Mahmud’s men captured it. Seeing that, Nanda composed a poem and sent it to Mahmud,
reading which Mahmud gave him a commission of 15 forts including Kalinjar along with many presents. Nanda reciprocated in kind and Mahmud returned back. Now, compare this with how Mahmud treated Firdausi - he promised gold mohurs, but he gave silver ones as payment.
Famed for hismiserliness, it's impossible to believe Mahmud gave Chandela Vidyadhara just for a poem. In the 1025 muster of army, Mahmud counted 300 elephants and 54000 cavalry, excluding the troops in distant territories.
This actually betrays the lies spun – according to his campaign records, he brought at least 1300 war worthy elephants from India and he still had 300 with him only. He took his army and marched on the Karakhanid ruler Alitegin who was facing a domestic rebellion.
When Yusuf Kadar Khan, King of all Turkestan joined Mahmud, Alitegin fled but was captured and exiled to Hindustan(this is false because Alitegin counter-attacked when Mahmud withdrew for another expedition on India. The same year, Mahmud was told of the temple of Somnath.
He marched with 30000 mounted men, reaching Ajmer after crossing the desert from Multan. The Raja fled but Mahmud forbade investing of the fort because the target is Somnath. Next major fort was Narwala, which was vacated even before he reached.
Somanth fortress was by the sea and the Hindus believed the god will save them, retreated into the temple when the fort was put under siege. On the third day, reinforcements came to Somnath under the Chiefs of Pramdev and Dabishlim but Mahmud won a pyrrhic victory there,
killing 5000 of the enemy while losing 4000 of his. The people of the fort tried to flee by sea but the boats were sunk by Mahmud’s men. After that, temple was destroyed and looted. 
After the temple fell, Mahmud decided to attack Raja Pramdev. Pramdev vacated Nahrwala and holed himself in Khanda, a water fort(Again, this is false because Paramara Deva Bhoja wasn’t involved in this fight and was rushing towards Somnath hearing Mahmud is in the area).
After days of searching, a ford was located, the fort was invested and plundered. Pramdev escaped disguised and Mahmud rested his army at Nahrwala, which he thought of making his capital.
The author then writes that Mahmud wanted to conquer Pegu and Serendip but his nobles forced him to go back to Ghazni. He appointed a local governor and left. But, hearing that Raja Pramdev, the Raja of Ajmere and others decided to stop Mahmud, he decided to rush back to
Multan and Ghazni through the desert – his army suffered much, without water and provisions and reached Ghazni by 1027. It is said that the guide whom Mahmud selected was a worshipper of Somnath and deliberately lead the army away from water and food.
When Mahmud reached Ghazni, he received a letter from Caliph who gave him a new title - The shelter of Dignity and Islam. His sons, Masud was given “Brilliant Star of Dignity and of the Beauty of the Faith” and Yusuf, “The Forearms of Dignity and Strength giver of the Faith.”
Also, he said he will accept Mahmud’s nominee to the throne. In 1028, Mahmud marched to punish the Jats who harassed his army in his Somnath campaign. Mahmud built 4000 boats with spikes and sunk the boats of the Jats. The people were sent as slaves back to Ghazni.
In 1028, Mahmud sent the Governor of Tus, Abul-Harb-Arsalan to exterminate the Turkomans who crossed Amu and are creating havoc. The troop wasn’t sufficient and Mahmud had to march with a second army to crush them. He next took Rae and Ishafan with their great treasures from
the Buwayids and appointed his son Masud as the governor. In 1031, he became seriously ill and ignoring it, he went to Balkh and returned – his illness became severe and died the same year aged 63.
He was the first (king of Ghazni) to assume the title of Sultan, a hint of his independence from the Caliph, though he maintained peaceful relations with the Caliph. Mahmud was of medium height and his limbs were symmetrical and his face was pitted (with small pox).
It is said that Mahmud is said to be very ugly but he conscious of his ugliness. He once said to a minister, “People say that gazing on the King's face improves the sight, and my complexion is such that by looking at it a man's heart becomes sorrowful.”
The minister replied "What necessity is there for you to beautify your appearance; it is befitting that you should make your habits beautiful so that everyone may love”
In fact, this can indicate the scars on their faces Huns were famous for.
In fact, this can indicate the scars on their faces Huns were famous for.
Before his death, he asked his whole treasury to be displayed before him in the courtyard, wept seeing them(because he won’t be able to take them with him) and asked them to be taken back. After that, he did a review of his troops and animals.
Two years after his death, Ghazni faced devastating floods, leading to the destruction of the dam and much damage. A visiting poet who returned to Ghazni during that time lamented over that.
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Mahmud's kingdom was dealt a body blow at Bahraich in 1032 ending the Ghaznavid Indian enterprise, leading to an even disastrous blow at Dandanaqan in 1040. In effect, we see, Ghaznavid Empire is a one man show - rising and falling with his fortunes.
